Tuesday, July 31, 2018
The Aerodrome: A milestone in aviation history: Aviators parachute from from moving aircraft in France. . . .and Texas. And Natural gas makes a coal replacing appearance.
From our companion blog, The Aerodrome:
A milestone in aviation history: Aviators parachute from from moving aircraft in France. . . .and Texas.
Meanwhile, in the other local newspaper, the news was all about oil. . . and natural gas.
It was reported that on this day, in 1918, a French aviator, and an American one, both experimented with parachuting from moving aircraft.
Like all things aviation, parachutes were advancing fairly rapidly under the pressure of World War One. They'd already been introduced for balloon crewmen, who could parachute out of balloons in combat scenarios. Indeed, they typically did so when it became apparent a balloon was about to be attacked, as they had to put the parachute harness on in order to get out. They did not simply routinely wear it. But up until this point in the war, it had not been the case that aviators wore parachutes or even could.
Indeed, it would not become standard until after the war. While these experiments proved it could be done, it remained the case that wearing an early parachute in an early airplane was not easy to do, and indeed, was largely impractical for the most part.
A larger view of the same newspaper can be seen on our Today In Wyoming's History site for this date.
Indeed, this paper has a number of interesting things reported in it in the energy news that would predict the future. Gasoline was coming on. . . but natural gas was arriving and replacing coal.
Monday, July 30, 2018
So, having babbled about Boy Scout uniforms, perhaps I should address the Girl Scouts as well.
Extremely serious looking Girl Scout with semiphore flags, 1920.
We've discussed Boy Scout uniforms and caps. . . so we should take a look at the Girl Scouts. "“Activities at the Girl Scouts Camp, Central Valley, New York. Line of the Girl Scouts waiting their turn to get their wash basins full of water at the water pipes.” July 21, 1918.
But I don't know much about them.
Girls Scouts on July 21, 1918. Note the semi military uniforms, which pretty closely reflect the uniforms adopted by female auxiliaries of various types providing service during the Great War. (Note, I think the photograph above might include both Girl Scouts and Camp Fire Girls. I'm not sure, but now that I know a little more about these uniforms, I think that's likely the case. About this time the organizations attempted to merge).
Except there's few hats in evidence. Indeed, only one.
Is that a sailor's Dixie Cap?
The problem is that I don't know anything about female costume.
Now, let me first note that I'm not trying to use a dismissive term in referring to female dress as "costume". I'm using the term in the larger sense, as in clothing and fashion. And, in regards to that, I don't know anything about female fashions at all, other than that a lot of them are really darned weird.
Indeed, for that reason, I've rarely strayed into the topic. My most notable example of doing it was in regards to an item that was developed from a Reddit topic on "100 Years Ago" , that started off:
Women and Trousers. No big historical deal, or the triumph of the harpies in trousers?
This overalls wearing lass, whom is portrayed an industrial giant (take that, Rosie the Riveter) is wearing overalls, albeit one of the baggiest pairs of overalls ever. She's also wearing a canvass cap to cover her hair, with hair styles being voluminous at the time. She doesn't look very happy, we might note.
From Reddit's 100 Years Ago Today Subreddit:
Munich Authorities Put Ban On Bloomers
So reported the New York Times.Military Aroused Because Women Have Been Wearing Them To Church
A review of the article reveals that Bavarian authorities were appalled by women taking up trousers, which they'd done as they were working in male roles given World War One. Perhaps they were feeling like Rooster Cogburn in True Grit by that time of the war:
And that very long post from last February goes on from there.
Women are over half of the American population and while I'm not completely certain, I think they were in the period of time this blog focuses on as well. Knowing that off hand is a little difficult as there are varying factors at play in regards to human mortality that impact that statistic. Prior to the mid 19th Century, for example, men tended to outnumber women as death during childbirth was extremely high. In the 18th Century it was enormously common for men to be married two or three times during their lifetime simply for that reason. Men of means quite often tended to marry women near their own ages and then marry progressively younger spouses as their first ones died in that fashion where as by the last 19th Century things had changed so much that in the same demographic remarrying due to that was regarded as somewhat shameful. Having said that, starting in the mid 19th Century industrial deaths, nearly all male, started to ramp up so much due to industrialization that the rate of households headed by a single female became approximately as common as they are today, simply due to that.
All of which has nothing to do with clothing.
Or maybe it does. I'm not sure.
But it does mean that not addressing female clothing is ignoring at least half of the population, a pretty big historical omission.
Adding to our problem, however, is the fact that female clothing evolved at an amazing rapid rate. It's simply incredible. In comparison, male clothing evolved hardly at all. On this topic, I recently posted an item on the same subreddit asking the question of why women's clothing had evolved so quickly between World War One and World War Two. A knowledgeable poster came back and noted that my time frame observations were simply incorrect. Women's clothing was evolving extremely rapidly prior to World War One and just kept on evolving.
And Girl Scouts uniforms are part of that, or reflect it. . . but maybe less than we might suppose.
Indeed, because that is the case, and because its just part of a bigger story, I likely should discuss women's clothing first.
But I'm not going to.
Okay, so let's take a look at Girl Scout uniforms . . and in so doing, let's take a look first at the Girl Scouts.
The Girl Scouts date, more or less, to March 12, 1912 when they were first founded by Juliette Gordon Low.
Juliette Gordon Low not dressed in a Scouting uniform and bearing no resemblance to Lord Baden Powell.
Mrs. Low was a Southerner, but with Chicago roots oddly enough, of a patrician background and had the values associated with that class. Born in 1860, she was born into the Civil War and grew up, therefore, mostly in the post war American South. She was highly educated and attended the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom, where she met her husband Gordon. Their marriage was not happy, but was sort of a characteristically English one, in which her husband depleted his assets with hunting trips and gambling. By 1900 they were basically on the outs and were in the process of obtaining a divorce, when he died in 1905.
Low, much later, with two Girl Guides
Low descended from pioneer stock in part and had outdoor interests. More than that, however, she had met and been influenced by Lord Baden Powell. We've already dealt with Powell in various posts about the Boy Scouts, so we'll forget that here, but it's interesting to note that at the very first, while the Boy Scouts were devoted to the manly, Christian, upbringing of boys, they didn't actually at first exclude girls It's just that their activities were not thought of as terribly feminine and camping, as a female pursuit, was not common. Still, there was enough interest on the part of girls (and presumably their parents) that a 1909 Boy Scout publication complained a bit on social restrictions imposed on girls and it made at least camping difficult for them, when it noted; "If a girl is not allowed to run, or even hurry, to swim, ride a bike, or
raise her arms above her head, how can she become a Scout?"
How indeed?
In spite of this girls did register with the very early British Boy Scouts at first, making our earlier comments regarding the all male Boy Scouts slightly, although only slightly, suspect. This came to an end in 1909 however when British newspaper commentary scandalized it. Lord Baden Powell therefore asked his sister, Agnes Baden-Powell, to form the companion organization for girls, which was formed as the Girl Guides.* The focus of the organization can, in some ways, be illustrated by an early book by the Baden Powells regarding them.
The Handbook for Girl Guides with its obvious British Empire focus. The uniform the Guide is depicted as wearing was in fact the one they wore and which some American Girl Scouts wore for a long time.
Okay, at this point, a lot of this probably is starting to sound painfully familiar, and that's because I've covered part of it before, although only briefly and not really in depth. Nonetheless, rather than repeat what I wrote earlier, I'm just going to link back into it here:
The Scouts, both Girl and Boy, had competition right from the onset. Sure proof that Lord Baden Powell had tapped into something is provided by the fact that copycat organizations sprung up right away. Most of these organizations rose and fell pretty quickly, and most of them were pretty much copies of the Scouts but without the large organization backing it up and the all that went with it. So its' not too surprising that they didn't last all that long. Some were a little more militaristic than the Scouts, particularly early on, and emphasized things like shooting, although that was an aspect of the Scouts as well. I won't, therefore, dwell much with them. I will note, however, that oddly enough the Boy Scouts itself competed a bit against it self in this area when, in 1912, it organized the Sea Scouts, a youth organization that was focused on the sea and seafaring skills, but which very clearly modeled itself on the Navy in uniform and early appearance, showing how close to being a quasi private military training organization the Scouts really were.
Joining these youth organizations wasn't universal, however, in spite of what some might like to think. I know, for example, my father, born in 1929, was never a Boy Scout and I don't think his younger brother ever was either. My mother, however, was a Girl Guide in Quebec.
Taking this forward the Scouts remained really strong for a really long time. I don't know what percentage of American youth belonged to the Boy Scouts, the Girl Scouts, etc., but it seems to have been a fairly large percentage. As recently as the 1950s it seems to me that there was sort of an assumption that boys and girls became Scouts. Even as recently as the 1970s quite a few were, although I was only a Boy Scout myself for a few months (so few that I usually say I was never a Scout, too few to really count).
Well there I guess you have the organizations early days. And to some extent, depending upon where you are, all of these organizations are still around. There aren't Girl Guides in the US, but there are elsewhere. And the Camp Fire Girls are still around.
What you've perhaps also noticed is that the clothing designated for these organizations was. . well odd.
Thankfully they did get over the Indian maiden thing, which was really silly. The first official uniform looked a lot like that of the English Girl Guides, and featured a homemade dark blue blouse and skirt with
sateen ties, felt campaign hats, and long black stockings. Ties were had entered women's clothing at the time and were pretty popular, although I'll note that they are one horrific item of male clothing that women were able to dump and not be afflicted with. It's interesting to note that the uniform was homemade, which shows right from the onset how the focus of the organization was different and at that time domestic.
Girl Scout leaders wore a different, not homemade, uniform of dark khaki, serge, or twill with a tailored shirt and a silk tie in a four-in-hand knot. Their uniform included a trefoil pin worn just below the knot of the tie which signified the Girl Scouts Promise: "To serve God and your country, to help people at all times, and to live by the Girl Scout law"^^^ which showed the focus of the organization and which leaned heavily on the focus of the Boy Scouts.
Changing more rapidly than the Boy Scouts, but always with a seeming domestic focus, in the economically stretched 1930s the Girl Scouts introduced a very simple one piece cotton dress in light green. This introduced their distinctive color and also reflected a very real fashion change in female clothing. Simple dresses were now pretty common whereas in the 1910s and 1920s they were a bit more complicated and included more fabric. They also introduced the green beret which they've kept ever since. A Girl Scout of the 1930s would be pretty recognizable as a Girl Scout now, in fact, as the common mental preception of them was fixed at about that time. This changed again in the 1940s and a yellow tie was added, with the introduction of uniform that was a bit more elaborate and which I suspect was due to the poverty of the Great Depression being introduced. Also at this time a seperate unfiorm was created for hte junior organization, the Brownies, but I'm going to omit that discussion as, juast as with the Cub Scouts, I find it too dull.
Still the interesting thing here is that during the 1930s women's trouser really were coming in and very common. A lot of that is due to the introuction of much more practical undergarments I'm not going to discuss, but by the 1930s women were frequently wearing work and dress trousers. It's really strange that an organizaton that theoretically had an outdoor focus didn't go to them, or even have an official issue of them, but that tells you a lot. At the same point in time in which the Boy Scouts were abandoning their World War One Army type unform in favor of a World War Two type Army uniofrm, the Girl Scouts were sticking with dresses. The focus remained domestic.
And so it was in the 1950s and 60s as well. In the 50s a loose big green one piece dress was introduced and a version of it stuck through the 60s. The big green sash for merit badges came in. The beret stuck around. In the 70s, 80s and 90s this all remained true and versions of the earlier uniforms were around always with a green skirt of some sort and a sash. But by that time, as with the Boy Scouts, the practice had evolved to let girls wear just one item and that meant that they could wear something more practical. It wasn't until the 2000s, however, that there were official trousers.
What you've perhaps also noticed is that the clothing designated for these organizations was. . well odd.
Girl Scouts building a fire while camping in 1912. Quite obviously, whatever the official uniform was, these girls were dressed up in a fashion resembling Indians, and had their hair braided for the same reason.
Indeed, in looking at photos of early Girl Scouts what becomes clear is that whatever the uniform was supposed to be, more often than not somebody decided to have no uniform at all (understandable) or to dress them up like Indians, which fit into a certain cultural thing going on at the time, but which is strange.
Very early Girl Scouts before their uniforms had really become fully standardized, learning to shoot.
Officially, at the very first, English Girl Guides wore a uniform that was militaristic in nature and based on the Boy Scouts, but with a skirt. The depicting on the book inserted above gives a really good illustration of that. The campaign hat yielded nearly immediately, however, to a different pattern, but it was still there. It always featured a skirt of some sort, however.
Early Girl Scout learning archery in the standard early uniform but wearing a Montana Peak type campaign hat.
Now, we already, as noted above, have a long post on women and trousers. I'm not going to go back and redo all that here, but I'll note just from the onset that it isn't true that women didn't wear trouser at all up until some point in the mid 20th Century. That's baloney. But it is the case that in most cultures they didn't until starting in the late 19th Century. I went into that there.
Girl Scouts working in a garden, probably during World War One. Most of these girls have the early pattern campaign hat. Gardening was emphasized in American society during the Great War and both Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts actively took it up.
Trousers are obviously better for camping, and I'd argue that they're better for everything, so it is odd to us to today to see camping girls wearing skirts. Indeed, in a modern context, it'd be completely absurd. But it wasn't so much the case at the time, and if you view the photographs we've put of women in service and quasi service during World War One, you'll find the exact some thing. Indeed, what you'll also find is that this is the point in time, the early 20th Century and late 19th Century, when trousers started coming in for women. Indeed, the Great War played a role in that, but due to factory work, not due to wartime field service. So again, you'd think that Girl Scout uniforms wouldn't have been so darned impractical looking. . . to our eyes.
A Washington D. C. Girl Scout troop gardening during World War One. One of these Scouts has departed from the uniform and is wearing a campaign hat.
More than a little of that was just cultural, and indeed all of these female youth organizations are a bit of an oddity for that reason as women and camping just wasn't a thing, and for real reasons. Without going into it in huge detail, camping fits into a male role that's on the hunting/fighting/fighting sliding scale that's embedded deep in the male genetic code and which Lord Baden Powell was trying to foster in a Christian sense. This is not to say, rather obviously, that women don't like to camp. Anyhow, as the article on women in trousers explores, women didn't usually wear trousers that much until this point in time, and it came on kind of slowly.
Girl Scouts selling war bonds with Alice (Roosevelt) Longworth, 1917. All the women's clothing in this photograph was set to be rapidly obsolete.
One thing that I didn't address there (as I'm not an expert on the topic and it didn't occur to me), however, and I'm not going to really address here either particularly in this context, is that women's undergarments and related stuff evolved a lot in this period of time as well and in a fashion that allowed women to wear pants every day. Enough said about that, but that's an aspect of this that is simply forgotten entirely. Female clothing featured fairly long skirts for a long time not because it was keeping women down, but because of various concerns that relate to biology and decency. Enough said on that.
Camping Girl Scouts, 1919.
But women's clothing was evolving in this period with lightening speed. Oddly, Girl Scout uniforms really didn't. It's weird.
Girl Scout in full uniform with outdoor gear in the 1920s. Here too this Scout has retained the M1911 type campaign hat.
Girl Scout leaders wore a different, not homemade, uniform of dark khaki, serge, or twill with a tailored shirt and a silk tie in a four-in-hand knot. Their uniform included a trefoil pin worn just below the knot of the tie which signified the Girl Scouts Promise: "To serve God and your country, to help people at all times, and to live by the Girl Scout law"^^^ which showed the focus of the organization and which leaned heavily on the focus of the Boy Scouts.
Girl Scouts marching in a Memorial Day parade, 1944.
Girl Scouts learning to knit, 1942.
Still the interesting thing here is that during the 1930s women's trouser really were coming in and very common. A lot of that is due to the introuction of much more practical undergarments I'm not going to discuss, but by the 1930s women were frequently wearing work and dress trousers. It's really strange that an organizaton that theoretically had an outdoor focus didn't go to them, or even have an official issue of them, but that tells you a lot. At the same point in time in which the Boy Scouts were abandoning their World War One Army type unform in favor of a World War Two type Army uniofrm, the Girl Scouts were sticking with dresses. The focus remained domestic.
Girl Scouts setting table, 1931.
And so it was in the 1950s and 60s as well. In the 50s a loose big green one piece dress was introduced and a version of it stuck through the 60s. The big green sash for merit badges came in. The beret stuck around. In the 70s, 80s and 90s this all remained true and versions of the earlier uniforms were around always with a green skirt of some sort and a sash. But by that time, as with the Boy Scouts, the practice had evolved to let girls wear just one item and that meant that they could wear something more practical. It wasn't until the 2000s, however, that there were official trousers.
Girl Scouts picking up trash in the Potomac, 1970s. I think this is likely a pretty good example of how Girl Scouts really dressed when outdoors, at least since the 1950s.
So, in posting all of this, as weird as it may sound, I realized that, well. . . I don't really know what the Girl Scouts are about. I don't know what they've ever been about.
I do know what the Boy Scouts are about because, . . . well maybe because I'm a guy and I was in the Boy Scouts for about 3.5 seconds and I'm otherwise just much more familiar with them. The Boy Scouts, even though I was never one of them for any appreciable amount of time, seem sort of an obvious organization to me, in context. As a mirror image of the Boy Scouts, the Girl Scouts strike me that way too, but they obviously actually aren't a mirror image of the Boy Scouts.
They did, sort of, start off that way. And the early photos of them I posted above really show that. But what about their texts?
Well, let's see what Load Baden Powell had to say in their 1919 manual:
Well, the old post on their original merit badges shows a subtle difference. Consider:
Well, let's see what Load Baden Powell had to say in their 1919 manual:
"How did Scouting come to be used by girls?" That is what I have been asked. Well, it was this way. In the beginning I had used Scouting—that is, wood craft, handiness, and cheery helpfulness—as a means for training young soldiers when they first joined the army, to help them become handy, capable men and able to hold their own with anyone instead of being mere drilled machines.
You have read about the Wars in your country against the Red Indians, of the gallantry of your soldiers against the cunning of the Red Man, and what is more, of the pluck of your women on those dangerous frontiers.
Well, we have had much the same sort of thing in South Africa. Over and over again I have seen there the wonderful bravery and resourcefulness of the women when the tribes of Zulu or Matabeles have been out on the war path against the white settlers.
In the Boer war a number of women volunteered to help my forces as nurses or otherwise; they were full of pluck and energy, but unfortunately they had never been trained to do anything, and so with all the good-will in the world they were of no use. I could not help feeling how splendid it would be if one could only train them in peace time in the same way one trained the young soldiers—that is, through Scoutcraft.
I afterwards took to training boys in that way, but I had not been long at it before the girls came along, and offered to do the very thing I had hoped for, they wanted to take up Scouting also.
They did not merely want to be imitators of the boys; they wanted a line of their own.
So I gave them a smart blue uniform and the names of "Guides" and my sister wrote an outline of the scheme. The name Guide appealed to the British girls because the pick of our frontier forces in India is the Corps of Guides. The term cavalry or infantry hardly describes it since it is composed of all-round handy men ready to take on any job in the campaigning line and do it well.
Then too, a woman who can be a good and helpful comrade to her brother or husband or son along the path of life is really a guide to him.
The name Guide therefore just describes the members of our sisterhood who besides being handy and ready for any kind of duty are also a jolly happy family and likely to be good, cheery comrades to their mankind.
The coming of the Great War gave the Girl Guides their opportunity, and they quickly showed the value of their training by undertaking a variety of duties which made them valuable to their country in her time of need.
My wife, Lady Baden-Powell, was elected by the members to be the Chief Guide, and under her the movement has gone ahead at an amazing pace, spreading to most foreign countries.
It is thanks to Mrs. Juliette Low, of Savannah, that the movement was successfully started in America, and though the name Girl Scouts has there been used it is all part of the same sisterhood, working to the same ends and living up to the same Laws and Promise.
If all the branches continue to work together and become better acquainted with each other as they continue to become bigger it will mean not only a grand step for the sisterhood, but what is more important it will be a real help toward making the new League of Nations a living force.
How can that be? In this way:
If the women of the different nations are to a large extent members of the same society and therefore in close touch and sympathy with each other, although belonging to different countries, they will make the League a real bond not merely between the Governments, but between the Peoples themselves and they will see to it that it means Peace and that we have no more of War.Not quite the same as the Boy Scouts, and indeed, sort of set focused against it in a way.
Well, the old post on their original merit badges shows a subtle difference. Consider:
GIRL SCOUT PROFICIENCY TESTS AND SPECIAL MEDALS
At least as of 1919, their manual had a focus on domestic things, but it also had one on woodcraft. That seems to me to sort of define it. It was a mirror image of the Boy Scouts, without the implied martial air, and with a focus on domestic life that reflected social views regarding a woman's role in the world. It wasn't sexist in that fashion, and indeed in some ways the concept of women outdoorsmen doing such things as hunting and fishing, etc., was fairly radical.
Over time, I think, it continued to have that focus and I think it still does today. Maybe its because I know less about it, but it seems to me that it's managed to stay truer to itself somehow. Which may be why when the Boy Scouts recently opened their doors to girls, the Girl Scouts sort of laughed under their breath and replied that they were the organization for girls. They always were.
Over time, I think, it continued to have that focus and I think it still does today. Maybe its because I know less about it, but it seems to me that it's managed to stay truer to itself somehow. Which may be why when the Boy Scouts recently opened their doors to girls, the Girl Scouts sort of laughed under their breath and replied that they were the organization for girls. They always were.
_________________________________________________________________________________
^FWIW, an early post on this blog which featured Girl Scout merit badges was hugely popular at the time and was one of the most popular posts on the blog for a long time. So we haven't completely ignored the topic.
^^Okay, I realize that this was a different time, but having girls dress this way for an outdoor activity is and was darned near criminal. Particularly for girls in a boat. This is crazy.
*The sort of strange Englishness of the early Scouts, male and female, is epitomized by the Baden Powell family. We've dealt with Lord Baden Powell before, but it's interesting to note in this context that he did not marry until he was 55 years old, to a woman who was 23. There's been widespread speculation about his being a homosexual, but it seems largely unwarranted and the marriage genuine. Nonetheless a marriage that late in life to somebody so much younger is a bit unusual. They had three children.
Agnes Baden Powell had been engaged early in life but never married.
They were both children of the Reverend Baden Powell, the Savilian Professor of Geometry at the University of Oxford, and an Anglican clergyman. Typical of the era, and illustrative of a point raised above regarding female mortality, the Reverand Baden Powell was married three times and had fourteen children, only nine of whom lived to adulthood. His first wife died after the childless couple had been married fifteen years. He had children by his next two wives, the second of which died after seven years of marriage. His third wife outlived him.
^^^At least in 1919, the Girl Scout Law was:
^^^At least in 1919, the Girl Scout Law was:
LAWS
I A Girl Scout's Honor is to be Trusted II A Girl Scout is Loyal III A Girl Scout's Duty is to be Useful and to Help Others IV A Girl Scout is a Friend to All and a Sister to every other Girl Scout V A Girl Scout is Courteous VI A Girl Scout is a Friend to Animals VII A Girl Scout obeys Orders VIII A Girl Scout is Cheerful IX A Girl Scout is Thrifty X A Girl Scout is Clean in Thought, Word and Deed
Today In Wyoming's History: July 30, 1918. Joyce Kilmer killed in action.
Today In Wyoming's History: July 30:
1918. Poet Joyce Kilmer, U.S. Army sergeant, killed in France.
TREES
I think that I shall never see
A poem lovely as a tree.
A tree whose hungry mouth is prest
Against the sweet earth's flowing breast;
A tree that looks at God all day,
And lifts her leafy arms to pray;
A tree that may in summer wear
A nest of robins in her hair;
Upon whose bosom snow has lain;
Who intimately lives with rain.
Poems are made by fools like me,
But only God can make a tree .
You can tell that you thinking has been altered by your occupation as a lawyer when. . .
the primary thing about Michael Cohen's revelations about his relationship with Donald Trump you think about is how on earth is that not a violation of the attorney client privileged.
I think that's the way that story strikes most lawyers. We all learn a lot of details and secrets from our clients, and we're supposed to keep them secret. Isn't Cohen blowing that?
I worry a bit about this actually changing the nature of the privilege, which would be a very bad thing indeed. Hush money for trysts with Playboy models? That's icky, but I didn't think Trump was a super admirable guy to start with.
I think that's the way that story strikes most lawyers. We all learn a lot of details and secrets from our clients, and we're supposed to keep them secret. Isn't Cohen blowing that?
I worry a bit about this actually changing the nature of the privilege, which would be a very bad thing indeed. Hush money for trysts with Playboy models? That's icky, but I didn't think Trump was a super admirable guy to start with.
Ruth Bader Ginsberg decides to keep on keeping on until age 90.
Or so she has informed reporters in New York.
And she appears serious. She's hired clerks for the next two Supreme Court terms.
There's little doubt that Ginsberg remains sharp at age 85 and, given that she is still sharp at age 85, she's likely to remain so.
But there's something fundamentally wrong with a system that allows jurist to retain a position of such great important into their extremely advanced old age. Should her mind fail, or the mind of other justices following her lead, removing them is difficult in the extreme and would frankly always impose a cloud over their final years on the bench.
And besides that, at 85, let alone 90, Ginsberg is far, far older than the majority of Americans and even lawyers. She's occupying a position that's a public trust, but one granted her years ago by people who have long since retired or died. Of course, she could simply be choosing to try to outlast the Trump presidency, in which case she likely guessed wrong about Hillary Clinton's chances in the last election (as I also did). Indeed, had Clinton won, I'm still fairly convinced that her first Supreme Court pick would have been Barrack Obama.
This aspect of this system just isn't quite right any way you look at it. The Wyoming judicial retirement age is 70. That seems like a good system.
And she appears serious. She's hired clerks for the next two Supreme Court terms.
There's little doubt that Ginsberg remains sharp at age 85 and, given that she is still sharp at age 85, she's likely to remain so.
But there's something fundamentally wrong with a system that allows jurist to retain a position of such great important into their extremely advanced old age. Should her mind fail, or the mind of other justices following her lead, removing them is difficult in the extreme and would frankly always impose a cloud over their final years on the bench.
And besides that, at 85, let alone 90, Ginsberg is far, far older than the majority of Americans and even lawyers. She's occupying a position that's a public trust, but one granted her years ago by people who have long since retired or died. Of course, she could simply be choosing to try to outlast the Trump presidency, in which case she likely guessed wrong about Hillary Clinton's chances in the last election (as I also did). Indeed, had Clinton won, I'm still fairly convinced that her first Supreme Court pick would have been Barrack Obama.
This aspect of this system just isn't quite right any way you look at it. The Wyoming judicial retirement age is 70. That seems like a good system.
News on the local boys. July 30, 1918.
More than anything, readers of Wyoming's newspapers likely were hoping for news on what was going on with Wyomingites who were serving in the Great War. The Laramie Boomerang on this Tuesday, July 30, 1918, gave them that, letting them know what was going on with the Guard units that had been brought into service, and then formed into new units.
Sunday, July 29, 2018
The Food Desert. Disappearing Grocery Stores.
From this morning's Tribune comes a human interest story that directly relates to the focus of this blog:
In Midwest, there are three local choices for food: a gas station, a church food bank and a bench outside of the post office.
There was a grocery store, off of state Highway 387. It closed either five or 10 years ago, depending on whom you believe at the Arcade Bar, a watering hole in nearby Edgerton. In either case, the store is locked and boarded up now. The driveway is overgrown, and a row of storage lockers sits in the field behind it. Were it not for the bartender pointing the store out, visitors would drive by, completely unaware that at one point, there was fresh food for sale in this small community.
Kaycee’s general store is 30 miles away. Casper and its handful of grocery stores is more than 40 miles to the south. But the Big D, the gas station, is in town. It has milk, cartons of eggs, pre-packaged cold cuts and frozen hamburgers. There are no fresh vegetables. The restaurant in the gas station has fried chicken meals that top 2,000 calories.
We've dealt with this before, but this story does document a real change, as well as a real burden for people living in small Wyoming towns, and I'd wager small towns all over.“There are people in need here,” Donna Miller said from her community garden in Midwest last week. She explained that the older residents give grocery lists to the younger people who drive into Casper.
First on the closure, I recall that store and I recall stopping in there, but I couldn't tell you how long ago now it was either. The older you get, the more recently it seems things like that occurred. It feels like five years to me, but I'll bet its ten.
Anyhow, back to the story, all the little towns have this struggle, pretty much. The situation in Midwest and Edgerton is noted in the story. Expanding out just a little bit, in this county in the other small towns there aren't any real grocery stores in any of them. Powder River had a gas station that carried some items, and a bar that sold package liquor (all bars can sell package liquor) but they both closed about a decade or so ago. Out at Clarks Corner there used to be a crossroads gas station that sold some convenience items (and which had a bar and sold liquor) before that locality started to be developed into a rural subdivision which became a sort of town, but it's closed. Alcova has a small store that sells convenience items (and beer) and does quite a business with fishermen, but it's not a full grocery store by any means. The two nearby reservoirs that are heavily used have marinas that sell convenience items (I've never been in either, so I can't answer the beer question). Waltman and HIland both have stores, although the Waltman one was closed for quite some time and may have just reopened for hunting season last year, I'm not sure. Neither are full stores, although Hiland has a restaurant as well, as Waltman once did, associated with their small stores. You can buy gasoline at Waltman and Alcova. Glenrock, over the county line, does have a small grocery store.
Now, if you wanted fresh meat, let's say, or fresh vegetables, in most of these areas you are going to have to drive to a distant town. Sometimes very distant.
And we could go on and on. Shoshoni, for example, doesn't have grocery store. People there must drive to Riverton.
This phenomenon is sometimes call a Food Desert, and before its misunderstood, it also applies to lots of urban areas, particularly poorer ones. And it reflects the consolidation of grocery stores.
Consider this again. Casper at one time had the Grant Street Grocery, Braddis Grocery, Elk Street Grocery, and some small grocery store down on Ash Street whose name I don't recall. My father sometimes patronized Braddis', which was the largest of the ones noted above, and when I was a kid a neighboring family often sent their children, whom I was friends with, down to the one on Ash Street whose name I can't recall. Braddis' store was downtown and delivered.
And those are the stores I can remember. There may have been more small local groceries I don't. I do recall that in addition to Safeway and Albertson's, the big national grocery store chains, we also had an Ideal (which also goes by some other name I can't recall).
Of all of these, only Grant Street and Braddis' remain, and they have changed in order to stay in business. Grant Street is a specialty grocery store, although if you lived nearby you could walk there and get meat, bread and milk if you had the need. Braddis' is a butcher shop, their meat counter always having been legendary.
Even the story of the big grocery stores has changed. Safeway was purchased by Riddley's in Casper and now the same entity owns both the Albertson's stores and the former Safeway stores. They have to compete with Walmart, the giant retail entity, that sells groceries. K-Mart, which I never go into, does as well, I think. Smiths has a huge grocery store here and is also a chain, with their store located in what was once a Gibson's. The two Buttrey's, however, bit the dust. And there's a Natural Grocers, which specializes in what it sounds like. Mills and Casper both have Family Dollar stores which do sell groceries. Evansville and Bar Nunn, which adjoin Casper like Mills, don't have any grocery stores, but its a short drive into Casper for their residents.
So, if you are in Casper, there are plenty of full grocery stores around to choose from, but you are almost certainly going to have to go to one of the big chain ones unless you make an absolutely dedicated effort not to, and you likely also have a really substantial garden (which this year I did not). If you are in a small town which does not immediately border a big one. . . you are driving to a large one, and that means you are putting in no less than thirty miles, one way.
And if you aspire to be a small town retailer of the type that was once known as a "Grocer" or a "Green Grocer", you have an uphill battle, to say the least.
___________________________________________________________________________________
Related Threads:
Food: Seasonal, local, and from the grocery store. A revolution we don't often recognize.
The Corner Store. . . .isn't there.
Not that local. Dairies
First modern grocery store opens in Memphis, Tennessee. September 6, 1916.
Foodies, locovores, fishing poles and sychronicity
So it was Monday morning, July 29, 1918
And you picked up your morning paper and learned of the news from France. . . which seemed to reflect a turning of the tide.
July 29, 1968. Humanae Vitae
Normally, of course, we'd post a photograph of a church
here, given as we typically do that most Sunday mornings.
But today, we have an encyclical issued by Pope Paul VI that has reached its fiftieth anniversary which is of huge religious and cultural significance.
But today, we have an encyclical issued by Pope Paul VI that has reached its fiftieth anniversary which is of huge religious and cultural significance.
ENCYCLICAL
LETTER
HUMANAE VITAE
OF THE SUPREME PONTIFF
PAUL VI
TO HIS VENERABLE BROTHERS
THE PATRIARCHS, ARCHBISHOPS, BISHOPS
AND OTHER LOCAL ORDINARIES
IN PEACE AND COMMUNION WITH THE APOSTOLIC SEE,
TO THE CLERGY AND FAITHFUL OF THE WHOLE CATHOLIC WORLD, AND TO ALL MEN OF GOOD WILL,
ON THE REGULATION OF BIRTH
HUMANAE VITAE
OF THE SUPREME PONTIFF
PAUL VI
TO HIS VENERABLE BROTHERS
THE PATRIARCHS, ARCHBISHOPS, BISHOPS
AND OTHER LOCAL ORDINARIES
IN PEACE AND COMMUNION WITH THE APOSTOLIC SEE,
TO THE CLERGY AND FAITHFUL OF THE WHOLE CATHOLIC WORLD, AND TO ALL MEN OF GOOD WILL,
ON THE REGULATION OF BIRTH
Honored Brothers and Dear Sons,
Health and Apostolic Benediction.
The transmission of human life is a most serious role in which married people collaborate freely and responsibly with God the Creator. It has always been a source of great joy to them, even though it sometimes entails many difficulties and hardships.
The fulfillment of this duty has always posed problems to the conscience of married people, but the recent course of human society and the concomitant changes have provoked new questions. The Church cannot ignore these questions, for they concern matters intimately connected with the life and happiness of human beings.
I. PROBLEM AND COMPETENCY OF THE MAGISTERIUM
2.
The changes that have taken place are of considerable importance and varied in
nature. In the first place there is the rapid increase in population which has
made many fear that world population is going to grow faster than available
resources, with the consequence that many families and developing countries
would be faced with greater hardships. This can easily induce public
authorities to be tempted to take even harsher measures to avert this danger.
There is also the fact that not only working and housing conditions but the
greater demands made both in the economic and educational field pose a living
situation in which it is frequently difficult these days to provide properly
for a large family.
Also noteworthy is a new understanding of the dignity of woman and her place in society, of the value of conjugal love in marriage and the relationship of conjugal acts to this love.
But the most remarkable development of all is to be seen in man's stupendous progress in the domination and rational organization of the forces of nature to the point that he is endeavoring to extend this control over every aspect of his own life—over his body, over his mind and emotions, over his social life, and even over the laws that regulate the transmission of life.
Also noteworthy is a new understanding of the dignity of woman and her place in society, of the value of conjugal love in marriage and the relationship of conjugal acts to this love.
But the most remarkable development of all is to be seen in man's stupendous progress in the domination and rational organization of the forces of nature to the point that he is endeavoring to extend this control over every aspect of his own life—over his body, over his mind and emotions, over his social life, and even over the laws that regulate the transmission of life.
New
Questions
3.
This new state of things gives rise to new questions. Granted the conditions of
life today and taking into account the relevance of married love to the harmony
and mutual fidelity of husband and wife, would it not be right to review the
moral norms in force till now, especially when it is felt that these can be
observed only with the gravest difficulty, sometimes only by heroic effort?
Moreover, if one were to apply here the so called principle of totality, could it not be accepted that the intention to have a less prolific but more rationally planned family might transform an action which renders natural processes infertile into a licit and provident control of birth? Could it not be admitted, in other words, that procreative finality applies to the totality of married life rather than to each single act? A further question is whether, because people are more conscious today of their responsibilities, the time has not come when the transmission of life should be regulated by their intelligence and will rather than through the specific rhythms of their own bodies.
Interpreting the Moral Law
4. This kind of question requires from the teaching authority of the Church a new and deeper reflection on the principles of the moral teaching on marriage—a teaching which is based on the natural law as illuminated and enriched by divine Revelation.
When the evidence of the experts had been received, as well as the opinions and advice of a considerable number of Our brethren in the episcopate—some of whom sent their views spontaneously, while others were requested by Us to do so—We were in a position to weigh with more precision all the aspects of this complex subject. Hence We are deeply grateful to all those concerned.
Consequently, now that We have sifted carefully the evidence sent to Us and intently studied the whole matter, as well as prayed constantly to God, We, by virtue of the mandate entrusted to Us by Christ, intend to give Our reply to this series of grave questions.
No member of the faithful could possibly deny that the Church is competent in her magisterium to interpret the natural moral law. It is in fact indisputable, as Our predecessors have many times declared, (l) that Jesus Christ, when He communicated His divine power to Peter and the other Apostles and sent them to teach all nations His commandments, (2) constituted them as the authentic guardians and interpreters of the whole moral law, not only, that is, of the law of the Gospel but also of the natural law. For the natural law, too, declares the will of God, and its faithful observance is necessary for men's eternal salvation. (3) In carrying out this mandate, the Church has always issued appropriate documents on the nature of marriage, the correct use of conjugal rights, and the duties of spouses. These documents have been more copious in recent times. (4)
Special Studies
5. The consciousness of the same responsibility induced Us to confirm and expand the commission set up by Our predecessor Pope John XXIII, of happy memory, in March, 1963. This commission included married couples as well as many experts in the various fields pertinent to these questions. Its task was to examine views and opinions concerning married life, and especially on the correct regulation of births; and it was also to provide the teaching authority of the Church with such evidence as would enable it to give an apt reply in this matter, which not only the faithful but also the rest of the world were waiting for. (5)
The Magisterium's Reply
6. However, the conclusions arrived at by the commission could not be considered by Us as definitive and absolutely certain, dispensing Us from the duty of examining personally this serious question. This was all the more necessary because, within the commission itself, there was not complete agreement concerning the moral norms to be proposed, and especially because certain approaches and criteria for a solution to this question had emerged which were at variance with the moral doctrine on marriage constantly taught by the magisterium of the Church.
Moreover, if one were to apply here the so called principle of totality, could it not be accepted that the intention to have a less prolific but more rationally planned family might transform an action which renders natural processes infertile into a licit and provident control of birth? Could it not be admitted, in other words, that procreative finality applies to the totality of married life rather than to each single act? A further question is whether, because people are more conscious today of their responsibilities, the time has not come when the transmission of life should be regulated by their intelligence and will rather than through the specific rhythms of their own bodies.
Interpreting the Moral Law
4. This kind of question requires from the teaching authority of the Church a new and deeper reflection on the principles of the moral teaching on marriage—a teaching which is based on the natural law as illuminated and enriched by divine Revelation.
When the evidence of the experts had been received, as well as the opinions and advice of a considerable number of Our brethren in the episcopate—some of whom sent their views spontaneously, while others were requested by Us to do so—We were in a position to weigh with more precision all the aspects of this complex subject. Hence We are deeply grateful to all those concerned.
Consequently, now that We have sifted carefully the evidence sent to Us and intently studied the whole matter, as well as prayed constantly to God, We, by virtue of the mandate entrusted to Us by Christ, intend to give Our reply to this series of grave questions.
No member of the faithful could possibly deny that the Church is competent in her magisterium to interpret the natural moral law. It is in fact indisputable, as Our predecessors have many times declared, (l) that Jesus Christ, when He communicated His divine power to Peter and the other Apostles and sent them to teach all nations His commandments, (2) constituted them as the authentic guardians and interpreters of the whole moral law, not only, that is, of the law of the Gospel but also of the natural law. For the natural law, too, declares the will of God, and its faithful observance is necessary for men's eternal salvation. (3) In carrying out this mandate, the Church has always issued appropriate documents on the nature of marriage, the correct use of conjugal rights, and the duties of spouses. These documents have been more copious in recent times. (4)
Special Studies
5. The consciousness of the same responsibility induced Us to confirm and expand the commission set up by Our predecessor Pope John XXIII, of happy memory, in March, 1963. This commission included married couples as well as many experts in the various fields pertinent to these questions. Its task was to examine views and opinions concerning married life, and especially on the correct regulation of births; and it was also to provide the teaching authority of the Church with such evidence as would enable it to give an apt reply in this matter, which not only the faithful but also the rest of the world were waiting for. (5)
The Magisterium's Reply
6. However, the conclusions arrived at by the commission could not be considered by Us as definitive and absolutely certain, dispensing Us from the duty of examining personally this serious question. This was all the more necessary because, within the commission itself, there was not complete agreement concerning the moral norms to be proposed, and especially because certain approaches and criteria for a solution to this question had emerged which were at variance with the moral doctrine on marriage constantly taught by the magisterium of the Church.
II. DOCTRINAL PRINCIPLES
7.
The question of human procreation, like every other question which touches
human life, involves more than the limited aspects specific to such disciplines
as biology, psychology, demography or sociology. It is the whole man and the
whole mission to which he is called that must be considered: both its natural,
earthly aspects and its supernatural, eternal aspects. And since in the attempt
to justify artificial methods of birth control many appeal to the demands of
married love or of responsible parenthood, these two important realities of
married life must be accurately defined and analyzed. This is what We mean to
do, with special reference to what the Second Vatican Council taught with the
highest authority in its Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the World of
Today.
God's
Loving Design
8.
Married love particularly reveals its true nature and nobility when we realize
that it takes its origin from God, who "is love," (6) the Father
"from whom every family in heaven and on earth is named." (7)
Marriage, then, is far from being the effect of chance or the result of the blind evolution of natural forces. It is in reality the wise and provident institution of God the Creator, whose purpose was to effect in man His loving design. As a consequence, husband and wife, through that mutual gift of themselves, which is specific and exclusive to them alone, develop that union of two persons in which they perfect one another, cooperating with God in the generation and rearing of new lives.
The marriage of those who have been baptized is, in addition, invested with the dignity of a sacramental sign of grace, for it represents the union of Christ and His Church.
Marriage, then, is far from being the effect of chance or the result of the blind evolution of natural forces. It is in reality the wise and provident institution of God the Creator, whose purpose was to effect in man His loving design. As a consequence, husband and wife, through that mutual gift of themselves, which is specific and exclusive to them alone, develop that union of two persons in which they perfect one another, cooperating with God in the generation and rearing of new lives.
The marriage of those who have been baptized is, in addition, invested with the dignity of a sacramental sign of grace, for it represents the union of Christ and His Church.
Married
Love
9.
In the light of these facts the characteristic features and exigencies of
married love are clearly indicated, and it is of the highest importance to
evaluate them exactly.
This love is above all fully human, a compound of sense and spirit. It is not, then, merely a question of natural instinct or emotional drive. It is also, and above all, an act of the free will, whose trust is such that it is meant not only to survive the joys and sorrows of daily life, but also to grow, so that husband and wife become in a way one heart and one soul, and together attain their human fulfillment.
It is a love which is total—that very special form of personal friendship in which husband and wife generously share everything, allowing no unreasonable exceptions and not thinking solely of their own convenience. Whoever really loves his partner loves not only for what he receives, but loves that partner for the partner's own sake, content to be able to enrich the other with the gift of himself.
Married love is also faithful and exclusive of all other, and this until death. This is how husband and wife understood it on the day on which, fully aware of what they were doing, they freely vowed themselves to one another in marriage. Though this fidelity of husband and wife sometimes presents difficulties, no one has the right to assert that it is impossible; it is, on the contrary, always honorable and meritorious. The example of countless married couples proves not only that fidelity is in accord with the nature of marriage, but also that it is the source of profound and enduring happiness.
Finally, this love is fecund. It is not confined wholly to the loving interchange of husband and wife; it also contrives to go beyond this to bring new life into being. "Marriage and conjugal love are by their nature ordained toward the procreation and education of children. Children are really the supreme gift of marriage and contribute in the highest degree to their parents' welfare." (8)
This love is above all fully human, a compound of sense and spirit. It is not, then, merely a question of natural instinct or emotional drive. It is also, and above all, an act of the free will, whose trust is such that it is meant not only to survive the joys and sorrows of daily life, but also to grow, so that husband and wife become in a way one heart and one soul, and together attain their human fulfillment.
It is a love which is total—that very special form of personal friendship in which husband and wife generously share everything, allowing no unreasonable exceptions and not thinking solely of their own convenience. Whoever really loves his partner loves not only for what he receives, but loves that partner for the partner's own sake, content to be able to enrich the other with the gift of himself.
Married love is also faithful and exclusive of all other, and this until death. This is how husband and wife understood it on the day on which, fully aware of what they were doing, they freely vowed themselves to one another in marriage. Though this fidelity of husband and wife sometimes presents difficulties, no one has the right to assert that it is impossible; it is, on the contrary, always honorable and meritorious. The example of countless married couples proves not only that fidelity is in accord with the nature of marriage, but also that it is the source of profound and enduring happiness.
Finally, this love is fecund. It is not confined wholly to the loving interchange of husband and wife; it also contrives to go beyond this to bring new life into being. "Marriage and conjugal love are by their nature ordained toward the procreation and education of children. Children are really the supreme gift of marriage and contribute in the highest degree to their parents' welfare." (8)
Responsible
Parenthood
10. Married love, therefore, requires of husband and wife the
full awareness of their obligations in the matter of responsible parenthood,
which today, rightly enough, is much insisted upon, but which at the same time
should be rightly understood. Thus, we do well to consider responsible
parenthood in the light of its varied legitimate and interrelated aspects.
With regard to the biological processes, responsible parenthood means an awareness of, and respect for, their proper functions. In the procreative faculty the human mind discerns biological laws that apply to the human person. (9)
With regard to man's innate drives and emotions, responsible parenthood means that man's reason and will must exert control over them.
With regard to physical, economic, psychological and social conditions, responsible parenthood is exercised by those who prudently and generously decide to have more children, and by those who, for serious reasons and with due respect to moral precepts, decide not to have additional children for either a certain or an indefinite period of time.
Responsible parenthood, as we use the term here, has one further essential aspect of paramount importance. It concerns the objective moral order which was established by God, and of which a right conscience is the true interpreter. In a word, the exercise of responsible parenthood requires that husband and wife, keeping a right order of priorities, recognize their own duties toward God, themselves, their families and human society.
From this it follows that they are not free to act as they choose in the service of transmitting life, as if it were wholly up to them to decide what is the right course to follow. On the contrary, they are bound to ensure that what they do corresponds to the will of God the Creator. The very nature of marriage and its use makes His will clear, while the constant teaching of the Church spells it out. (10)
With regard to the biological processes, responsible parenthood means an awareness of, and respect for, their proper functions. In the procreative faculty the human mind discerns biological laws that apply to the human person. (9)
With regard to man's innate drives and emotions, responsible parenthood means that man's reason and will must exert control over them.
With regard to physical, economic, psychological and social conditions, responsible parenthood is exercised by those who prudently and generously decide to have more children, and by those who, for serious reasons and with due respect to moral precepts, decide not to have additional children for either a certain or an indefinite period of time.
Responsible parenthood, as we use the term here, has one further essential aspect of paramount importance. It concerns the objective moral order which was established by God, and of which a right conscience is the true interpreter. In a word, the exercise of responsible parenthood requires that husband and wife, keeping a right order of priorities, recognize their own duties toward God, themselves, their families and human society.
From this it follows that they are not free to act as they choose in the service of transmitting life, as if it were wholly up to them to decide what is the right course to follow. On the contrary, they are bound to ensure that what they do corresponds to the will of God the Creator. The very nature of marriage and its use makes His will clear, while the constant teaching of the Church spells it out. (10)
Observing
the Natural Law
11. The sexual activity, in which husband and wife are
intimately and chastely united with one another, through which human life is
transmitted, is, as the recent Council recalled, "noble and worthy.'' (11)
It does not, moreover, cease to be legitimate even when, for reasons
independent of their will, it is foreseen to be infertile. For its natural
adaptation to the expression and strengthening of the union of husband and wife
is not thereby suppressed. The fact is, as experience shows, that new life is
not the result of each and every act of sexual intercourse. God has wisely
ordered laws of nature and the incidence of fertility in such a way that
successive births are already naturally spaced through the inherent operation
of these laws. The Church, nevertheless, in urging men to the observance of the
precepts of the natural law, which it interprets by its constant doctrine,
teaches that each and every marital act must of necessity retain its intrinsic
relationship to the procreation of human life. (12)
Union and
Procreation
12. This particular doctrine, often expounded by the
magisterium of the Church, is based on the inseparable connection, established
by God, which man on his own initiative may not break, between the unitive
significance and the procreative significance which are both inherent to the
marriage act.
The reason is that the fundamental nature of the marriage act, while uniting husband and wife in the closest intimacy, also renders them capable of generating new life—and this as a result of laws written into the actual nature of man and of woman. And if each of these essential qualities, the unitive and the procreative, is preserved, the use of marriage fully retains its sense of true mutual love and its ordination to the supreme responsibility of parenthood to which man is called. We believe that our contemporaries are particularly capable of seeing that this teaching is in harmony with human reason.
The reason is that the fundamental nature of the marriage act, while uniting husband and wife in the closest intimacy, also renders them capable of generating new life—and this as a result of laws written into the actual nature of man and of woman. And if each of these essential qualities, the unitive and the procreative, is preserved, the use of marriage fully retains its sense of true mutual love and its ordination to the supreme responsibility of parenthood to which man is called. We believe that our contemporaries are particularly capable of seeing that this teaching is in harmony with human reason.
Faithfulness
to God's Design
13. Men rightly observe that a conjugal act imposed on one's
partner without regard to his or her condition or personal and reasonable
wishes in the matter, is no true act of love, and therefore offends the moral
order in its particular application to the intimate relationship of husband and
wife. If they further reflect, they must also recognize that an act of mutual
love which impairs the capacity to transmit life which God the Creator, through
specific laws, has built into it, frustrates His design which constitutes the
norm of marriage, and contradicts the will of the Author of life. Hence to use
this divine gift while depriving it, even if only partially, of its meaning and
purpose, is equally repugnant to the nature of man and of woman, and is
consequently in opposition to the plan of God and His holy will. But to
experience the gift of married love while respecting the laws of conception is
to acknowledge that one is not the master of the sources of life but rather the
minister of the design established by the Creator. Just as man does not have
unlimited dominion over his body in general, so also, and with more particular
reason, he has no such dominion over his specifically sexual faculties, for
these are concerned by their very nature with the generation of life, of which
God is the source. "Human life is sacred—all men must recognize that
fact," Our predecessor Pope John XXIII recalled. "From its very
inception it reveals the creating hand of God." (13)
Unlawful
Birth Control Methods
14. Therefore We base Our
words on the first principles of a human and Christian doctrine of marriage
when We are obliged once more to declare that the direct interruption of the
generative process already begun and, above all, all direct abortion, even for
therapeutic reasons, are to be absolutely excluded as lawful means of
regulating the number of children. (14) Equally to be condemned, as the
magisterium of the Church has affirmed on many occasions, is direct
sterilization, whether of the man or of the woman, whether permanent or
temporary. (15)
Similarly excluded is any action which either before, at the moment of, or after sexual intercourse, is specifically intended to prevent procreation—whether as an end or as a means. (16)
Neither is it valid to argue, as a justification for sexual intercourse which is deliberately contraceptive, that a lesser evil is to be preferred to a greater one, or that such intercourse would merge with procreative acts of past and future to form a single entity, and so be qualified by exactly the same moral goodness as these. Though it is true that sometimes it is lawful to tolerate a lesser moral evil in order to avoid a greater evil or in order to promote a greater good," it is never lawful, even for the gravest reasons, to do evil that good may come of it (18)—in other words, to intend directly something which of its very nature contradicts the moral order, and which must therefore be judged unworthy of man, even though the intention is to protect or promote the welfare of an individual, of a family or of society in general. Consequently, it is a serious error to think that a whole married life of otherwise normal relations can justify sexual intercourse which is deliberately contraceptive and so intrinsically wrong.
Similarly excluded is any action which either before, at the moment of, or after sexual intercourse, is specifically intended to prevent procreation—whether as an end or as a means. (16)
Neither is it valid to argue, as a justification for sexual intercourse which is deliberately contraceptive, that a lesser evil is to be preferred to a greater one, or that such intercourse would merge with procreative acts of past and future to form a single entity, and so be qualified by exactly the same moral goodness as these. Though it is true that sometimes it is lawful to tolerate a lesser moral evil in order to avoid a greater evil or in order to promote a greater good," it is never lawful, even for the gravest reasons, to do evil that good may come of it (18)—in other words, to intend directly something which of its very nature contradicts the moral order, and which must therefore be judged unworthy of man, even though the intention is to protect or promote the welfare of an individual, of a family or of society in general. Consequently, it is a serious error to think that a whole married life of otherwise normal relations can justify sexual intercourse which is deliberately contraceptive and so intrinsically wrong.
Lawful
Therapeutic Means
15. On the other hand, the Church does not consider at all
illicit the use of those therapeutic means necessary to cure bodily diseases,
even if a foreseeable impediment to procreation should result there
from—provided such impediment is not directly intended for any motive
whatsoever. (19)
Recourse
to Infertile Periods
16. Now as We noted earlier (no. 3), some people today raise
the objection against this particular doctrine of the Church concerning the
moral laws governing marriage, that human intelligence has both the right and
responsibility to control those forces of irrational nature which come within
its ambit and to direct them toward ends beneficial to man. Others ask on the
same point whether it is not reasonable in so many cases to use artificial
birth control if by so doing the harmony and peace of a family are better
served and more suitable conditions are provided for the education of children
already born. To this question We must give a clear reply. The Church is the
first to praise and commend the application of human intelligence to an
activity in which a rational creature such as man is so closely associated with
his Creator. But she affirms that this must be done within the limits of the
order of reality established by God.
If therefore there are well-grounded reasons for spacing births, arising from the physical or psychological condition of husband or wife, or from external circumstances, the Church teaches that married people may then take advantage of the natural cycles immanent in the reproductive system and engage in marital intercourse only during those times that are infertile, thus controlling birth in a way which does not in the least offend the moral principles which We have just explained. (20)
Neither the Church nor her doctrine is inconsistent when she considers it lawful for married people to take advantage of the infertile period but condemns as always unlawful the use of means which directly prevent conception, even when the reasons given for the later practice may appear to be upright and serious. In reality, these two cases are completely different. In the former the married couple rightly use a faculty provided them by nature. In the later they obstruct the natural development of the generative process. It cannot be denied that in each case the married couple, for acceptable reasons, are both perfectly clear in their intention to avoid children and wish to make sure that none will result. But it is equally true that it is exclusively in the former case that husband and wife are ready to abstain from intercourse during the fertile period as often as for reasonable motives the birth of another child is not desirable. And when the infertile period recurs, they use their married intimacy to express their mutual love and safeguard their fidelity toward one another. In doing this they certainly give proof of a true and authentic love.
If therefore there are well-grounded reasons for spacing births, arising from the physical or psychological condition of husband or wife, or from external circumstances, the Church teaches that married people may then take advantage of the natural cycles immanent in the reproductive system and engage in marital intercourse only during those times that are infertile, thus controlling birth in a way which does not in the least offend the moral principles which We have just explained. (20)
Neither the Church nor her doctrine is inconsistent when she considers it lawful for married people to take advantage of the infertile period but condemns as always unlawful the use of means which directly prevent conception, even when the reasons given for the later practice may appear to be upright and serious. In reality, these two cases are completely different. In the former the married couple rightly use a faculty provided them by nature. In the later they obstruct the natural development of the generative process. It cannot be denied that in each case the married couple, for acceptable reasons, are both perfectly clear in their intention to avoid children and wish to make sure that none will result. But it is equally true that it is exclusively in the former case that husband and wife are ready to abstain from intercourse during the fertile period as often as for reasonable motives the birth of another child is not desirable. And when the infertile period recurs, they use their married intimacy to express their mutual love and safeguard their fidelity toward one another. In doing this they certainly give proof of a true and authentic love.
Consequences
of Artificial Methods
17. Responsible men can become more deeply convinced of the
truth of the doctrine laid down by the Church on this issue if they reflect on
the consequences of methods and plans for artificial birth control. Let them
first consider how easily this course of action could open wide the way for
marital infidelity and a general lowering of moral standards. Not much
experience is needed to be fully aware of human weakness and to understand that
human beings—and especially the young, who are so exposed to temptation—need
incentives to keep the moral law, and it is an evil thing to make it easy for
them to break that law. Another effect that gives cause for alarm is that a man
who grows accustomed to the use of contraceptive methods may forget the
reverence due to a woman, and, disregarding her physical and emotional
equilibrium, reduce her to being a mere instrument for the satisfaction of his
own desires, no longer considering her as his partner whom he should surround
with care and affection.
Finally, careful consideration should be given to the danger of this power passing into the hands of those public authorities who care little for the precepts of the moral law. Who will blame a government which in its attempt to resolve the problems affecting an entire country resorts to the same measures as are regarded as lawful by married people in the solution of a particular family difficulty? Who will prevent public authorities from favoring those contraceptive methods which they consider more effective? Should they regard this as necessary, they may even impose their use on everyone. It could well happen, therefore, that when people, either individually or in family or social life, experience the inherent difficulties of the divine law and are determined to avoid them, they may give into the hands of public authorities the power to intervene in the most personal and intimate responsibility of husband and wife.
Finally, careful consideration should be given to the danger of this power passing into the hands of those public authorities who care little for the precepts of the moral law. Who will blame a government which in its attempt to resolve the problems affecting an entire country resorts to the same measures as are regarded as lawful by married people in the solution of a particular family difficulty? Who will prevent public authorities from favoring those contraceptive methods which they consider more effective? Should they regard this as necessary, they may even impose their use on everyone. It could well happen, therefore, that when people, either individually or in family or social life, experience the inherent difficulties of the divine law and are determined to avoid them, they may give into the hands of public authorities the power to intervene in the most personal and intimate responsibility of husband and wife.
Limits to
Man's Power
Consequently, unless we are willing
that the responsibility of procreating life should be left to the arbitrary
decision of men, we must accept that there are certain limits, beyond which it
is wrong to go, to the power of man over his own body and its natural
functions—limits, let it be said, which no one, whether as a private individual
or as a public authority, can lawfully exceed. These limits are expressly
imposed because of the reverence due to the whole human organism and its
natural functions, in the light of the principles We stated earlier, and in accordance
with a correct understanding of the "principle of totality"
enunciated by Our predecessor Pope Pius XII. (21)
Concern of
the Church
18. It is to be anticipated that perhaps not everyone will
easily accept this particular teaching. There is too much clamorous outcry
against the voice of the Church, and this is intensified by modern means of
communication. But it comes as no surprise to the Church that she, no less than
her divine Founder, is destined to be a "sign of contradiction." (22)
She does not, because of this, evade the duty imposed on her of proclaiming
humbly but firmly the entire moral law, both natural and evangelical.
Since the Church did not make either of these laws, she cannot be their arbiter—only their guardian and interpreter. It could never be right for her to declare lawful what is in fact unlawful, since that, by its very nature, is always opposed to the true good of man.
In preserving intact the whole moral law of marriage, the Church is convinced that she is contributing to the creation of a truly human civilization. She urges man not to betray his personal responsibilities by putting all his faith in technical expedients. In this way she defends the dignity of husband and wife. This course of action shows that the Church, loyal to the example and teaching of the divine Savior, is sincere and unselfish in her regard for men whom she strives to help even now during this earthly pilgrimage "to share God's life as sons of the living God, the Father of all men." (23)
Since the Church did not make either of these laws, she cannot be their arbiter—only their guardian and interpreter. It could never be right for her to declare lawful what is in fact unlawful, since that, by its very nature, is always opposed to the true good of man.
In preserving intact the whole moral law of marriage, the Church is convinced that she is contributing to the creation of a truly human civilization. She urges man not to betray his personal responsibilities by putting all his faith in technical expedients. In this way she defends the dignity of husband and wife. This course of action shows that the Church, loyal to the example and teaching of the divine Savior, is sincere and unselfish in her regard for men whom she strives to help even now during this earthly pilgrimage "to share God's life as sons of the living God, the Father of all men." (23)
III. PASTORAL DIRECTIVES
19. Our words would not be an adequate expression of the
thought and solicitude of the Church, Mother and Teacher of all peoples, if,
after having recalled men to the observance and respect of the divine law
regarding matrimony, they did not also support mankind in the honest regulation
of birth amid the difficult conditions which today afflict families and
peoples. The Church, in fact, cannot act differently toward men than did the
Redeemer. She knows their weaknesses, she has compassion on the multitude, she
welcomes sinners. But at the same time she cannot do otherwise than teach the
law. For it is in fact the law of human life restored to its native truth and
guided by the Spirit of God. (24) Observing the Divine Law.
20. The teaching of the Church regarding the proper regulation of birth is a promulgation of the law of God Himself. And yet there is no doubt that to many it will appear not merely difficult but even impossible to observe. Now it is true that like all good things which are outstanding for their nobility and for the benefits which they confer on men, so this law demands from individual men and women, from families and from human society, a resolute purpose and great endurance. Indeed it cannot be observed unless God comes to their help with the grace by which the goodwill of men is sustained and strengthened. But to those who consider this matter diligently it will indeed be evident that this endurance enhances man's dignity and confers benefits on human society.
20. The teaching of the Church regarding the proper regulation of birth is a promulgation of the law of God Himself. And yet there is no doubt that to many it will appear not merely difficult but even impossible to observe. Now it is true that like all good things which are outstanding for their nobility and for the benefits which they confer on men, so this law demands from individual men and women, from families and from human society, a resolute purpose and great endurance. Indeed it cannot be observed unless God comes to their help with the grace by which the goodwill of men is sustained and strengthened. But to those who consider this matter diligently it will indeed be evident that this endurance enhances man's dignity and confers benefits on human society.
Value of
Self-Discipline
21. The right and lawful ordering of birth demands, first of
all, that spouses fully recognize and value the true blessings of family life
and that they acquire complete mastery over themselves and their emotions. For
if with the aid of reason and of free will they are to control their natural
drives, there can be no doubt at all of the need for self-denial. Only then
will the expression of love, essential to married life, conform to right order.
This is especially clear in the practice of periodic continence.
Self-discipline of this kind is a shining witness to the chastity of husband
and wife and, far from being a hindrance to their love of one another,
transforms it by giving it a more truly human character. And if this
self-discipline does demand that they persevere in their purpose and efforts,
it has at the same time the salutary effect of enabling husband and wife to
develop to their personalities and to be enriched with spiritual blessings. For
it brings to family life abundant fruits of tranquility and peace. It helps in
solving difficulties of other kinds. It fosters in husband and wife
thoughtfulness and loving consideration for one another. It helps them to repel
inordinate self-love, which is the opposite of charity. It arouses in them a
consciousness of their responsibilities. And finally, it confers upon parents a
deeper and more effective influence in the education of their children. As
their children grow up, they develop a right sense of values and achieve a
serene and harmonious use of their mental and physical powers.
Promotion
of Chastity
22. We take this opportunity to address those who are engaged in
education and all those whose right and duty it is to provide for the common
good of human society. We would call their attention to the need to create an
atmosphere favorable to the growth of chastity so that true liberty may prevail
over license and the norms of the moral law may be fully safeguarded.
Everything therefore in the modern means of social communication which arouses men's baser passions and encourages low moral standards, as well as every obscenity in the written word and every form of indecency on the stage and screen, should be condemned publicly and unanimously by all those who have at heart the advance of civilization and the safeguarding of the outstanding values of the human spirit. It is quite absurd to defend this kind of depravity in the name of art or culture (25) or by pleading the liberty which may be allowed in this field by the public authorities.
Everything therefore in the modern means of social communication which arouses men's baser passions and encourages low moral standards, as well as every obscenity in the written word and every form of indecency on the stage and screen, should be condemned publicly and unanimously by all those who have at heart the advance of civilization and the safeguarding of the outstanding values of the human spirit. It is quite absurd to defend this kind of depravity in the name of art or culture (25) or by pleading the liberty which may be allowed in this field by the public authorities.
Appeal to
Public Authorities
23. And now We wish to speak to rulers of nations. To you most
of all is committed the responsibility of safeguarding the common good. You can
contribute so much to the preservation of morals. We beg of you, never allow the
morals of your peoples to be undermined. The family is the primary unit in the
state; do not tolerate any legislation which would introduce into the family
those practices which are opposed to the natural law of God. For there are
other ways by which a government can and should solve the population
problem—that is to say by enacting laws which will assist families and by
educating the people wisely so that the moral law and the freedom of the
citizens are both safeguarded.
Seeking
True Solutions
We are fully aware of the
difficulties confronting the public authorities in this matter, especially in
the developing countries. In fact, We had in mind the justifiable anxieties
which weigh upon them when We published Our encyclical letter Populorum
Progressio. But now We join Our voice to that of Our predecessor John XXIII
of venerable memory, and We make Our own his words: "No statement of the
problem and no solution to it is acceptable which does violence to man's
essential dignity; those who propose such solutions base them on an utterly
materialistic conception of man himself and his life. The only possible
solution to this question is one which envisages the social and economic
progress both of individuals and of the whole of human society, and which respects
and promotes true human values." (26) No one can, without being grossly
unfair, make divine Providence responsible for what clearly seems to be the
result of misguided governmental policies, of an insufficient sense of social
justice, of a selfish accumulation of material goods, and finally of a culpable
failure to undertake those initiatives and responsibilities which would raise
the standard of living of peoples and their children. (27) If only all
governments which were able would do what some are already doing so nobly, and
bestir themselves to renew their efforts and their undertakings! There must be
no relaxation in the programs of mutual aid between all the branches of the
great human family. Here We believe an almost limitless field lies open for the
activities of the great international institutions.
To
Scientists
24. Our next appeal is to men of science. These can
"considerably advance the welfare of marriage and the family and also
peace of conscience, if by pooling their efforts they strive to elucidate more
thoroughly the conditions favorable to a proper regulation of births."
(28) It is supremely desirable, and this was also the mind of Pius XII, that
medical science should by the study of natural rhythms succeed in determining a
sufficiently secure basis for the chaste limitation of offspring. (29) In this
way scientists, especially those who are Catholics, will by their research
establish the truth of the Church's claim that "there can be no
contradiction between two divine laws—that which governs the transmitting of
life and that which governs the fostering of married love." (30)
To
Christian Couples
25. And now We turn in a special way to Our own sons and
daughters, to those most of all whom God calls to serve Him in the state of
marriage. While the Church does indeed hand on to her children the inviolable
conditions laid down by God's law, she is also the herald of salvation and
through the sacraments she flings wide open the channels of grace through which
man is made a new creature responding in charity and true freedom to the design
of his Creator and Savior, experiencing too the sweetness of the yoke of
Christ. (31)
In humble obedience then to her voice, let Christian husbands and wives be mindful of their vocation to the Christian life, a vocation which, deriving from their Baptism, has been confirmed anew and made more explicit by the Sacrament of Matrimony. For by this sacrament they are strengthened and, one might almost say, consecrated to the faithful fulfillment of their duties. Thus will they realize to the full their calling and bear witness as becomes them, to Christ before the world. (32) For the Lord has entrusted to them the task of making visible to men and women the holiness and joy of the law which united inseparably their love for one another and the cooperation they give to God's love, God who is the Author of human life.
We have no wish at all to pass over in silence the difficulties, at times very great, which beset the lives of Christian married couples. For them, as indeed for every one of us, "the gate is narrow and the way is hard, that leads to life." (33) Nevertheless it is precisely the hope of that life which, like a brightly burning torch, lights up their journey, as, strong in spirit, they strive to live "sober, upright and godly lives in this world," (34) knowing for sure that "the form of this world is passing away." (35)
In humble obedience then to her voice, let Christian husbands and wives be mindful of their vocation to the Christian life, a vocation which, deriving from their Baptism, has been confirmed anew and made more explicit by the Sacrament of Matrimony. For by this sacrament they are strengthened and, one might almost say, consecrated to the faithful fulfillment of their duties. Thus will they realize to the full their calling and bear witness as becomes them, to Christ before the world. (32) For the Lord has entrusted to them the task of making visible to men and women the holiness and joy of the law which united inseparably their love for one another and the cooperation they give to God's love, God who is the Author of human life.
We have no wish at all to pass over in silence the difficulties, at times very great, which beset the lives of Christian married couples. For them, as indeed for every one of us, "the gate is narrow and the way is hard, that leads to life." (33) Nevertheless it is precisely the hope of that life which, like a brightly burning torch, lights up their journey, as, strong in spirit, they strive to live "sober, upright and godly lives in this world," (34) knowing for sure that "the form of this world is passing away." (35)
Recourse
to God
For this reason husbands and wives
should take up the burden appointed to them, willingly, in the strength of
faith and of that hope which "does not disappoint us, because God's love
has been poured into our hearts through the Holy Spirit who has been given to
us ~}36 Then let them implore the help of God with unremitting prayer and, most
of all, let them draw grace and charity from that unfailing fount which is the
Eucharist. If, however, sin still exercises its hold over them, they are not to
lose heart. Rather must they, humble and persevering, have recourse to the
mercy of God, abundantly bestowed in the Sacrament of Penance. In this way, for
sure, they will be able to reach that perfection of married life which the
Apostle sets out in these words: "Husbands, love your wives, as Christ
loved the Church. . . Even so husbands should love their wives as their own
bodies. He who loves his wife loves himself. For no man ever hates his own
flesh, but nourishes and cherishes it, as Christ does the Church. . . This is a
great mystery, and I mean in reference to Christ and the Church; however, let
each one of you love his wife as himself, and let the wife see that she
respects her husband." (37)
Family
Apostolate
26. Among the fruits that ripen if the law of God be resolutely
obeyed, the most precious is certainly this, that married couples themselves
will often desire to communicate their own experience to others. Thus it comes
about that in the fullness of the lay vocation will be included a novel and
outstanding form of the apostolate by which, like ministering to like, married
couples themselves by the leadership they offer will become apostles to other
married couples. And surely among all the forms of the Christian apostolate it
is hard to think of one more opportune for the present time. (38)
To Doctors
and Nurses
27. Likewise we hold in the highest esteem those doctors and
members of the nursing profession who, in the exercise of their calling,
endeavor to fulfill the demands of their Christian vocation before any merely
human interest. Let them therefore continue constant in their resolution always
to support those lines of action which accord with faith and with right reason.
And let them strive to win agreement and support for these policies among their
professional colleagues. Moreover, they should regard it as an essential part
of their skill to make themselves fully proficient in this difficult field of
medical knowledge. For then, when married couples ask for their advice, they
may be in a position to give them right counsel and to point them in the proper
direction. Married couples have a right to expect this much from them.
To Priests
28. And now, beloved sons, you who are priests, you who in
virtue of your sacred office act as counselors and spiritual leaders both of
individual men and women and of families—We turn to you filled with great
confidence. For it is your principal duty—We are speaking especially to you who
teach moral theology—to spell out clearly and completely the Church's teaching
on marriage. In the performance of your ministry you must be the first to give
an example of that sincere obedience, inward as well as outward, which is due
to the magisterium of the Church. For, as you know, the pastors of the Church
enjoy a special light of the Holy Spirit in teaching the truth. (39) And this,
rather than the arguments they put forward, is why you are bound to such
obedience. Nor will it escape you that if men's peace of soul and the unity of
the Christian people are to be preserved, then it is of the utmost importance that
in moral as well as in dogmatic theology all should obey the magisterium of the
Church and should speak as with one voice. Therefore We make Our own the
anxious words of the great Apostle Paul and with all Our heart We renew Our
appeal to you: "I appeal to you, brethren, by the name of our Lord Jesus
Christ, that all of you agree and that there be no dissensions among you, but
that you be united in the same mind and the same judgment." (40)
Christian
Compassion
29. Now it is an outstanding manifestation of charity toward
souls to omit nothing from the saving doctrine of Christ; but this must always
be joined with tolerance and charity, as Christ Himself showed in His
conversations and dealings with men. For when He came, not to judge, but to
save the world, (41) was He not bitterly severe toward sin, but patient and
abounding in mercy toward sinners?
Husbands and wives, therefore, when deeply distressed by reason of the difficulties of their life, must find stamped in the heart and voice of their priest the likeness of the voice and the love of our Redeemer.
So speak with full confidence, beloved sons, convinced that while the Holy Spirit of God is present to the magisterium proclaiming sound doctrine, He also illumines from within the hearts of the faithful and invites their assent. Teach married couples the necessary way of prayer and prepare them to approach more often with great faith the Sacraments of the Eucharist and of Penance. Let them never lose heart because of their weakness.
Husbands and wives, therefore, when deeply distressed by reason of the difficulties of their life, must find stamped in the heart and voice of their priest the likeness of the voice and the love of our Redeemer.
So speak with full confidence, beloved sons, convinced that while the Holy Spirit of God is present to the magisterium proclaiming sound doctrine, He also illumines from within the hearts of the faithful and invites their assent. Teach married couples the necessary way of prayer and prepare them to approach more often with great faith the Sacraments of the Eucharist and of Penance. Let them never lose heart because of their weakness.
To Bishops
30. And now as We come to the end of this encyclical letter, We
turn Our mind to you, reverently and lovingly, beloved and venerable brothers
in the episcopate, with whom We share more closely the care of the spiritual
good of the People of God. For We invite all of you, We implore you, to give a
lead to your priests who assist you in the sacred ministry, and to the faithful
of your dioceses, and to devote yourselves with all zeal and without delay to
safeguarding the holiness of marriage, in order to guide married life to its
full human and Christian perfection. Consider this mission as one of your most
urgent responsibilities at the present time. As you well know, it calls for
concerted pastoral action in every field of human diligence, economic, cultural
and social. If simultaneous progress is made in these various fields, then the
intimate life of parents and children in the family will be rendered not only
more tolerable, but easier and more joyful. And life together in human society
will be enriched with fraternal charity and made more stable with true peace
when God's design which He conceived for the world is faithfully followed.
A Great
Work
31. Venerable brothers, beloved sons, all men of good will,
great indeed is the work of education, of progress and of charity to which We
now summon all of you. And this We do relying on the unshakable teaching of the
Church, which teaching Peter's successor together with his brothers in the
Catholic episcopate faithfully guards and interprets. And We are convinced that
this truly great work will bring blessings both on the world and on the Church.
For man cannot attain that true happiness for which he yearns with all the
strength of his spirit, unless he keeps the laws which the Most High God has
engraved in his very nature. These laws must be wisely and lovingly observed.
On this great work, on all of you and especially on married couples, We implore
from the God of all holiness and pity an abundance of heavenly grace as a
pledge of which We gladly bestow Our apostolic blessing.
Given at St. Peter's, Rome, on the
25th day of July, the feast of St. James the Apostle, in the year 1968, the
sixth of Our pontificate.
PAUL VI
NOTES
LATIN TEXT: Acta Apostolicae
Sedis, 60 (1968), 481-503.
ENGLISH TRANSLATION: The Pope
Speaks, 13 (Fall. 1969), 329-46.
REFERENCES:
(1) See Pius IX, encyc. letter Oui
pluribus: Pii IX P.M. Acta, 1, pp. 9-10; St. Pius X encyc. letter Singulari
quadam: AAS 4 (1912), 658; Pius XI, encyc.letter Casti connubii: AAS
22 (1930), 579-581; Pius XII, address Magnificate Dominum to the
episcopate of the Catholic World: AAS 46 (1954), 671-672; John XXIII,
encyc. letter Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), 457.
(2) See Mt 28. 18-19.
(3) See Mt 7. 21.
(4) See Council of Trent Roman
Catechism, Part II, ch. 8; Leo XIII, encyc.letter Arcanum: Acta
Leonis XIII, 2 (1880), 26-29; Pius XI, encyc.letter Divini illius Magistri:
AAS 22 (1930), 58-61; encyc. letter Casti connubii: AAS 22 (1930),
545-546; Pius XII, Address to Italian Medico-Biological Union of St. Luke: Discorsi
e radiomessaggi di Pio XII, VI, 191-192; to Italian Association of Catholic
Midwives: AAS 43 (1951), 835-854; to the association known as the Family
Campaign, and other family associations: AAS 43 (1951), 857-859; to 7th
congress of International Society of Hematology: AAS 50 (1958), 734-735 [TPS
VI, 394-395]; John XXIII, encyc.letter Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961),
446-447 [TPS VII, 330-331]; Second Vatican Council, Pastoral Constitution on
the Church in the World of Today, nos. 47-52: AAS 58 (1966), 1067-1074 [TPS
XI, 289-295]; Code of Canon Law, canons 1067, 1068 §1, canon 1076, §§1-2.
(5) See Paul VI, Address to Sacred
College of Cardinals: AAS 56 (1964), 588 [TPS IX, 355-356]; to Commission for
the Study of Problems of Population, Family and Birth: AAS 57 (1965), 388 [TPS
X, 225]; to National Congress of the Italian Society of Obstetrics and
Gynecology: AAS 58 (1966), 1168 [TPS XI, 401-403].
(6) See 1 Jn 4. 8.
(7) Eph 3. 15.
(8) Second Vatican Council, Pastoral
Constitution on the Church in the World of Today, no. 50: AAS 58
(1966), 1070-1072 [TPS XI, 292-293].
(9) See St. Thomas, Summa
Theologiae, I-II, q. 94, art. 2.
(10) See Second Vatican Council, Pastoral
Constitution on the Church in the World of Today, nos . 50- 5 1: AAS
58 ( 1 966) 1070-1073 [TPS XI, 292-293].
(11) See ibid., no. 49: AAS
58 (1966), 1070 [TPS XI, 291-292].
(12) See Pius XI. encyc. letter Casti
connubi: AAS 22 (1930), 560; Pius XII, Address to Midwives: AAS 43 (1951),
843.
(13) See encyc. letter Mater et
Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), 447 [TPS VII, 331].
(14) See Council of Trent Roman
Catechism, Part II, ch. 8; Pius XI, encyc. letter Casti connubii: AAS 22
(1930), 562-564; Pius XII, Address to Medico-Biological Union of St. Luke: Discorsi
e radiomessaggi, VI, 191-192; Address to Midwives: AAS 43 (1951), 842-843;
Address to Family Campaign and other family associations: AAS 43 (1951),
857-859; John XXIII, encyc. letter Pacem in terris: AAS 55 (1963),
259-260 [TPS IX, 15-16]; Second Vatican Council, Pastoral Constitution on
the Church in the World of Today, no. 51: AAS 58 (1966), 1072 [TPS XI,
293].
(15) See Pius XI, encyc. letter Casti
connubii: AAS 22 (1930), 565; Decree of the Holy Office, Feb. 22, 1940: AAS
32 (1940), 73; Pius XII, Address to Midwives: AAS 43
(1951), 843-844; to the Society of
Hematology: AAS 50 (1958), 734-735 [TPS VI, 394-395].
(16) See Council of Trent Roman
Catechism, Part II, ch. 8; Pius XI, encyc. letter Casti connubii: AAS 22
(1930), 559-561; Pius XII, Address to Midwives: AAS 43 (1951), 843; to the
Society of Hematology: AAS 50 (1958), 734-735 [TPS VI, 394-395]; John XXIII,
encyc.letter Mater et Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), 447 [TPS VII, 331].
(17) See Pius XII, Address to
National Congress of Italian Society of the Union of Catholic Jurists: AAS 45
(1953), 798-799 [TPS I, 67-69].
(18) See Rom 3. 8.
(19) See Pius XII, Address to 26th
Congress of Italian Association of Urology: AAS 45 (1953), 674-675; to Society
of Hematology: AAS 50 (1958), 734-735 [TPS VI, 394-395].
(20) See Pius XII, Address to
Midwives: AAS 43 (1951), 846.
(21) See Pius XII, Address to
Association of Urology: AAS 45 (1953), 674-675; to leaders and members of
Italian Association of Cornea Donors and Italian Association for the Blind: AAS
48 (1956), 461-462 [TPS III, 200-201].
(22) Lk 2. 34.
(23) See Paul Vl, encyc. letter Populorum
progressio: AAS 59 (1967), 268 [TPS XII, 151].
(24) See Rom 8.
(25) See Second Vatican Council, Decree
on the Media of Social Communication, nos. 6-7: AAS 56 (1964), 147 [TPS IX,
340-341].
(26) Encyc. letter Mater et
Magistra: AAS 53 (1961), 447 [TPS VII, 331].
(27) See encyc. letter Populorum
progressio, nos. 48-55: AAS 59 (1967), 281-284 [TPS XII, 160-162].
(28) Second Vatican Council, Pastoral
Constitution on the Church in the World of Today, no. 52: AAS 58
(1966), 1074 [TPS XI, 294].
(29) Address to Family Campaign and
other family associations: AAS 43 (1951), 859.
(30) Second Vatican Council, Pastoral
Constitution on the Church in the World of Today, no. 51: AAS 58
(1966), 1072 [TPS XI, 293].
(31) See Mt 11. 30.
(32) See Second Vatican Council, Pastoral
Constitution on the Church in the World of Today, no. 48: AAS 58
(1966), 1067-1069 [TPS XI,290-291]; Dogmatic Constitution on the Church,
no. 35: AAS 57 (1965), 40-41 [TPS X, 382-383].
(33) Mt 7. 14; see Heb
12. 11.
(34) See Ti 2. 12.
(35) See 1 Cor 7. 31.
(36) Rom 5. 5.
(37) Eph 5. 25, 28-29, 32-33.
(38)
See Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, nos.
35, 41: AAS 57 (1965), 40-45 [TPS X, 382-383, 386-387; Pastoral Constitution
on the Church in the World of Today, nos. 48-49: AAS 58 (1966),1067-1070
[TPS XI, 290-292]; Decree on the Apostolate of the Laity, no. 11: AAS 58
(1966), 847-849 [TPS XI, 128-129].
(39)
See Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, no. 25:
AAS 57 (1965), 29-31 [TPS X, 375-376].
(40)
1 Cor 1. 10.
(41)
See Jn 3. 17.
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