Sunday, July 6, 1924 Plutarco Elias Calles elected.

Plutarco Elias Calles of the Partido Laborista Mexicano won Mexico's presidential election with 84.1% of the vote.  Before the emergence of the PRI, which Calles founded, it was the labor party, a democratic socialist party, was the most powerful party in Mexico.

That Mexico, which had just endured a violent attempt at overthrowing the government, was able to successfully stage an election was a triumph of democracy, albeit a temporary one as the PRI would later lock the country up into being a one party state with the PRI as the official party.

Calles was a left wing figure who had come up as a general in the Mexican War.  A controversial figure, he's admired by some for his work on social and institutional changes in Mexico, and an attempt, albeit only partially successful, to reform a military then dominated by revolutionary generals who were a threat to the government itself.  His administration, however, attacked the Church which lead to the January 1, 1927 Catholic rebellion known as the Cristero War, arguably the last chapter of the Mexican Revolution, in which 200,000 Mexicans died and would ultimately bring about the reelection of Alvaro Obregón in 1928.  He was exiled to the United States in 1936 but returned in 1941 when the PRI was firmly in power.  By that time, closer to death, he had become a spiritualist.

The Johnstown Meteor fell to earth in Colorado and interrupted a nearby funeral.  It's only one of eleven such events that have been witnessed.

Johnstown is famous today for the Buc-ee's located there.

Last edition:

Saturday, July 5, 1924. Hitting a concrete wall.

Labels: 1920s, 1924, 1924 Olympics, Art, baseball, Brazil, France, Germany, J. C. Leyendecker

Monday, June 30, 1924. Teapot Grand Jury comes in.

The chips were falling in the Teapot Dome Scandal.

President Álvaro Obregón of Mexico announced that Mexico was suspending further payments to the International Committee of Bankers on Mexico (ICBM), abrogating the De la Huerta–Lamont Treaty of 1922.

Calvin Coolidge Jr, age 16, played a tennis match at hte White House in which he wore shoes, but no socks, causing him to have a toe blister.

Now, that wouldn't matter.

Then, as events will show, it did.

Dutch Jewish poet Jacob Israël de Haan was assassinated in Jerusalem by the Avraham Tehomi who was acting upon  orders from the Haganah.  Israël de Haan was opposed to Zionism and had friendly contacts with Arab leaders.

Last edition:

Saturday, June 28, 1924. Retrograde.

Labels: 1920s, 1924, 1924 Election, Art, Democratic Party, Disaster, Ohio, Weather

Friday, March 7, 1924. End of a Revolution and a Mutiny.

De la Huerta.

The Delahueristas surrendered with President Álvaro Obregón offering them an amnesty which they largely accepted and de la Huerta entered into the US, going to Los Angeles.  Mexican army officers who had been part of the revolution who held a rank higher than major were ordered to be executed.

De la Huerta's revolution came after Obregón endorsed Plutarco Calles as his successor and was favored by Catholics, conservatives and a considerable portion of the army officers.  Obregón was supported by the U.S. government, agrarians, workers and it resulted in the establishment of the Mexican Air Force.

An Irish Army demobilization, resulting in reduced numbers, met the opposition of the Irish Republican Army Organization (IRAO) which delivered an ultimatum to President Cosgrave from Major-General Liam Tobin and Colonel Charles Dalton, demanding it cease.  Defense Minister Richard Mulcahy ordered the arrest of both officers on charges of mutiny.

President Coolidge held a press conference:

Press Conference, March 7, 1924

Date: March 7, 1924

Location: Washington, D.C.

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Here is an inquiry about the appointment of Commissioners for the District of Columbia, and wanting to know whether I propose to wait for information from the various citizens organizations in the District. I think I am already pretty well advised by their opinions. I have here endorsements of Mr. Rudolph and Mr. Oyster by the Dairy Farm Citizens Association, Congress Heights Citizens Association, the Southwest Civic Association, Dupont Circle Citizens Association, West End Citizens Association, Garfield Citizens Association, South Washington Citizens Association, and the Merchants and Manufacturers Association, the Washington Chamber of Commerce, the Board of Trade, Federated Citizens Association, and the Thomas Circle Citizens Association. I think there is also an endorsement by the Republican Organization of the District, and I am not certain about the Democratic organization.

Mr. President, are you approaching a decision on that matter?

I think so, very soon. There are several other names suggested, but these men have practically a unanimous endorsement. The different associations and political organizations, quite naturally I would refer to for an opinion.

Will they probably be reappointed, Mr. President?

I wouldn’t assume too much about appointments until they are made. I got caught once or twice by thinking I had an appointment all settled when I was Mayor or Governor, and announced it, and then found out there were reasons why it couldn’t be done. It is embarrassing.

When do you think you will make them, Mr. President? I think very soon. I think their term of office runs out sometime next week. I think early in the week I shall submit their names. Here is an inquiry about the duty on wheat. I don’t know just what can be done about that. I have submitted the report to the Treasury Dept. to draw up a proper proclamation, if one is warranted by the report, in order that it may be done by the experts of the Treasury Department under whose jurisdiction, of course, the collection of revenue comes. I don’t know just what they will find or just when they will find it. I think though that that ought to be returned to me within two or three days. Here is another inquiry about the Mexican Claims Commission. 1 think that the Convention has been ratified and sent up here, but the proclamation so far as I recall has not come to me. That would be the next step necessary; to make the proclamation; and after that is made then I could make the appointments.

Here is an inquiry about a joint resolution for a reduction of 25% in the tax on 1923 incomes as a separate measure. I have seen that referred to in the news dispatches. I don t think I could be said to be advocating it, nor on the other hand am I opposing it. I do feel it would be very desirable if we could get that resolution adopted before the 15th of March, in order that it might apply to the first payment as well as the others. That would be my general reaction about it, but there may be some reasons why that wouldn’t make any difference, although that is the particular point about it that occurs to me. I think the first tax payments are due the 15th of March, and if this 25% were to be deducted from them, it would result in an easing up of the necessary amounts of credits that have to be transferred. I haven’t decided on a successor to Secretary Denby. I should think that if I should decide I could send the name to the Senate any time before his resignation becomes effective, which is next week sometime.

Did the newspaper men make any suggestions, Mr. President, or give you any aid?

Well, 1 think some of them have been suggestive. I haven’t got quite as many as I expected. Perhaps it isn’t so easy as it may have appeared to pick out the right kind of a man.

Here is a statement about an international conference on Europe’s economic situation, and suggesting that it might follow the report of the Dawes’ Committee on reparations, and inquiring whether I care to say whether the U. S. would participate in such a conference, should it take place.

That is a very hypothetical question, and I don’t believe I could give a hypothetical answer to it. All I can say is that we have repeatedly refused to participate in a conference of that kind. I don’t know of any reason up to the present time for a change in our attitude in that direction.

Here is another inquiry that wants to know when the Dept. of Justice will begin presentation of evidence relating to charges disclosed by the Chicago Grand Jury. Of course I have no information about that, nor have I any information about the nature of the charges, other than what is in the paper. I do not even know whether the Department of Justice feels that it has sufficient evidence to warrant a presentation of that evidence to the Grand Jury. All I can say is if they have evidence, or if their investigation discloses to them evidence, I assume they will make a presentation right away. I have suggested to the Department that they proceed expeditiously for the purpose of securing action. Here is this rumor that some members of Congress were involved, which was very distressing to the House, if they are entitled to have the matter cleared up at once. If the Department had evidence that could be presented to the Grand Jury, and if there was sufficient to warrant an indictment, it would be reported and everyone would know who was involved. If it wasn’t sufficient to secure an indictment, why that fact should be made known and everybody would be cleared. Whatever evidence they had as a result of the Chicago investigation, I assumed that they would proceed with it at once. What that is, I don’t know. My only suggestion was that they be as expeditious as possible about it.

Here is an inquiry about the evidence of Ira Bennett. I think I have seen him here once or twice. I can’t give any recollection about his conversation with me, or mine with him. It is in my mind that he came in to say how-do-you-do. I don’t recall any conference with him since this matter became acute. But it may be that he came in during a conference and stopped after the conference to say now-do-you-do.to me. I don’t recall very much about it.

Will you say anything about the telegram that you sent with reference to a Mr. Prescott, to Mr. McLean?

I noticed the statement given out yesterday, but it isn’t quite clear.

So, that was an inquiry that I made. I sent it to Mr. McLean because it ‘as sent, as you perhaps notice from the date of it, at 9.30 or so in the evening. If I had been over here and my office force were here, I could have found out if Mr. Slemp left. But I didn’t know just what time Mr. Slemp was going and I didn’t have his address. I knew that Mr. McLean was a resident there each winter and well known, and so I made the inquiry of him, and also for the purpose of shortening up the telegram. I remembered that Mr. McLean had said to me one time that if you ever want to know anything about District matters, Mr. Prescott would be a good men to talk with. That was the occasion of that telegram.

That had reference to the expiration of the terms of the two District Commissioners, didn’t it?

No, not that especially. Just district matters. I wasn’t very much acquainted with the men in the District who knew of District matters, and as he was out of town I inquired who I could ask about District matters. I recollected that he said Mr. Prescott was Republican City Chairman here. I tried to get Mr. Prescott one time, but he was out of town. So I made that inquiry of Mr. McLean. Does that make the matter plain?

Last prior:

Thursday, March 6, 1924. The US Olympic Equestrian Team.

Friday, December 7, 1923. De la Huerta joins his revolution.

Adolfo de la Huerta, governor of Sonora and former President of Mexico, joined the Delahuertista rebellion against the government of President Álvaro Obregón which had been brought in his name and ostensibly on behalf of his leadership.

Comedic actor Ted Knight was born in Terryville Connecticut.

Mrs. Charles E. Dietrich and Mrs. Pinchot, 12/7/23.

November 30, 1920. The Anglo Irish War heats up.

The way the IRA viewed it, Ireland had declared war, more or less, some time prior. The terrorist campaign and occasional military action launched by the IRA had been authorized by the self organized Irish Dail some time prior, which claimed to be the legitimate parliament for Ireland.

The British insertion of the Black & Tans, however, had caused the war against the IRA to take a new more violent swing, and the IRA struck back. That caused British fears that the IRA would strike in the United Kingdom itself.

The struggle was heating up.

In a location of other resolutions in this time period, Adolfo de la Huerta was in his last day as the President of Mexico.  Obregon had won the Presidential election in Mexico as the transfer of power, in this instance, would occur, and would be peaceful.

De la Huerta.

Which didn't mean that De la Huerta wouldn't attempt an overthrow of the government in the future.

For the time being, he became the secretary of finance in the new administration.

April 12, 1920 Sonora rebels, the Ruhr Rebellion ends.

The revolution in Mexico, and that's what it now was, was back on the front page of American newspapers.

As part of this process, Sonoran Governor Adolfo de la Huerta resigned his office in preparation for taking up the part of a revolutionary soldier once again.  In his place, Plutarco Elías Calles became Governor.  Calles was already a figure in Sonoran politics and had been a general in the Mexican revolution and a supporter of Carranza. At this time, he was supporting Obregon and De La Huerta.

Plutarco Elías Calles, who later took Mexico to the edge of fascism and across the line of sectarian brutality.

Calles was a true radical and his policies were brutal, particularly against the Catholic Church.  He'd later become the President of Mexico from 1924 to 1928 when his policies resulted in the Cristero War, which might be regarded as the final stage of the Mexican Revolution as well as the point at which Mexican democracy basically essentially a joke in some ways, so much so that when his policies resulted in the assassination by a Cristero supporter of Obregon, who was set to resume office, he became a type of dictator and founded the National Revolution Party, which governed Mexico from its founding until 2000.  Calles himself at this point flirted with fascism, which had an influence upon him.

Calles would ironically fall at the hands of an associate, Lázaro Cárdenas del Río, who became President of Mexico in 1934.  Cárdenas proved to be independent of his patron and acted against Calles' supporters.  Ultimately Calles was charged with being a member of revolutionary conspiracy and deported, ironically, to the United States in 1936.  Supposedly Calles was reading Mein Kampf at the time of his arrest.  As an exile, he made contact fascists in the United States although he rejected their anti Semitism and of course their hostility to Mexicans.  He was allowed to return to Mexico, in retirement, in 1941, and began to modify his views, supporting Mexico's entry into World War Two.

Cárdenas, for his part, remained a revolutionary, but not a fascist, and continued the suppression of the Catholic Church throughout his Presidency.  That feature of Mexican politics would not abate until 1940 when Manuel Ávila Camacho became President.

While this site is not, obviously, the history of Mexico website, all of this ties into the purpose of this blog which was to look at events in the 1890 to 1920 time frame with a particular focus (among other focuses) on the Border War with Mexico.  While this phase of this time frame and the attendant history are clearly winding down, the events described here are critical elements of it.  Over time, we've seen a democratic revolution that took the eclectic Francisco I. Modero into office as a true democrat devolve into continual revolutionary cycles which at one time promised to put a collection of democrats in power, only to have that fall apart and leave the radical Venustiano Carranza in charge.  In 1920, that was flying apart as Carranza schemed to control who would replace him as President of Mexico. That would ultimately see the more radical Obregon come to power followed by Calles, who was an extremist who flirted with fascism during his lifetime.  Only beginning in 1940 did Mexico begin to turn away from that direction, although it would take sixty years for real democracy to return to the country after that date.  In 1920, it was dying.

Oskar von Watter.  He commanded German government forces that entered the Ruhr to put down the Communist rebellion there.  In 1934 he'd cause a monument to be put up in Essen in honor of Freikorps soldiers who had died in the 1920 rebellion.  He died in 1934 and was buried in Berlin's Invalid Cemetery, a cemetary associated with Prussian military figures.

On the same day the Ruhr Rebellion in Germany came to an end with the German government firmly in control  General von Watter ordered his soldiers to abstain from "unlawful behavior", but it was too late.  Reds caught with firearms were simply killed in many instances.

Wednesday, January 17, 1917. Joint Mexican American Committee Concludes

 

Mexican refugee entering the United States.  In spite of the caption, his wealth is probably all on this horse.  Part of the tragedy that involved both the United States and Mexico for well over a decade.

The Joint Committee between the US and Mexico concluded its business.  With the agreement of December 24, 1916 having been made, with Carranza having refused to sign it, and with events overcoming the United States that would give Carranza the result he wanted anyway, there was no more work to be done.

 

Porfirio Diaz in full military costume.  The collapse of his rule lead to the long civil war in Mexico.

Some have stated that the mere existence of the Joint Committee was a success in and of itself, and there is some truth to that.  The committee worked for months on an agreement and came to one, and even if Carranza would not execute it as it didn't guaranty the withdraw of American forces, the fact that the country was now hurtling towards war with Germany made it necessary for that to occur without American formal assent to Carranza's demand.  By not agreeing to it, the US was not bound not to intervene again, which was one of the points that it had sought in the first place. Events essentially gave both nations what they had been demanding.

 

 Revolutionary, intellectual, and radical. General Carranza.  His government fought Villa and Zapata successfully, but he'd go down in a coup lead by his own general, Obregon some years later. 

Even if that was the case this step, the first in the beginning of the end of the event we have been tracking since March, has to be seen as a Mexican Constitutionalist victory in the midst of the Mexican Revolution.  At the time the Commission came to the United States it represented only one side in a three way (sometimes more) Mexican civil war that was still raging.  Even as Carranza demanded that the United States withdraw his forces were not uniformly doing well against either Villa or Zapata.  Disdaining the United States in general, in spite of the fact that Wilson treated his government as the de facto government, he also knew that he could not be seen to be achieving victory over Villa through the intervention of the United States, nor could he be seen to be allowing a violation of Mexican sovereignty.  His refusal to acquiesce to allowing American troops to cross the border in pursuit of raiders, something that the Mexican and American governments had allowed for both nations since the mid 19th Century, allowed him to be seen as a legitimate defender of Mexican sovereignty and as the legitimate head of a Mexican government.

 

More typically imagined in a sombrero, General Francisco Villa.  The colorful, erratic, and perhaps somewhat mentally unstable Villa would attempt to retire to a ranch he acquired after his surrender to Obregon and Carranza, but he ended up being assassinated under cloudy circumstances in 1923.  His killer would live into the 1950s and declare at the end of his life that he'd rid the world of a "monster".

 Emiliano Zapata and his staff.  Zapata was an agrarian and looked the part, which we in turn tend to confuse with the look of the Mexican Revolution.  As with many leaders of the Mexican Revolution, Zapata was assassinated, although unlike Villa he still commanded an army in the field at the time of his death.

As will be seen, even though the war in Mexico raged on, events were overtaking the US and Mexico very quickly.  The Constitutionalist government was legitimizing itself as a radical Mexican de jure government and would quickly become just that.  Revolutions against it would go on for years, but it was very quickly moving towards full legitimacy.  And the United States, having failed to capture Villa or even defeat the Villistas, and having accepted an effective passive role in Mexico after nearly getting into a full war with the Constitutionalist, now very much had its eye on Europe and could not strategically afford to be bogged down in Mexico.  A silent desire to get out of Mexico had become fully open.  The rough terms of the agreement arrived upon by the Committee, while never ratified by Carranza, would effectively operate anyway and the United States now very quickly turned to withdrawing from Mexico.

 

Alvaro Obregon, whose competence and study of military tactics lead to the defeat of Pancho Villa and his Division del Norte.  He'd ultimately become present of Mexico following his coup against Carranza.  Obregon would serve one term as president of Mexico, and was elected to a second term to follow his successor Calles, but he was assassinated prior to taking office.

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Related threads:  The Mexican Revolution.

Last Edition:

January 16, 1917. Admiral George Dewey dies

Labels: 1910s, 1917, Civil War, Personalities, Politics, Spanish American War, U.S. Navy

Sunday, December 6, 1914. Villa and Zapata enter Mexico City.

60,000 men, the combined forces of Villa and Zapata, entered Mexico City. 

Carranza retreated to Veracruz.

Álvaro Obregón issued a 14 point statement on why he opposed Villa.  Part of the statement confirmed Pancho Villa had executed Scottish expatriate William S. Benton in February.

German forces occupied Łódź,

Serbians forced the Austro Hungarians back to Belgrade.

Last edition:

Friday, December 4, 1914. An alliance based on opposition.

Labels: 1910s, 1914, Emiliano Zapata, Mexican Revolution, Mexico, Pancho Villa, Venustiano Carranza

Saturday, October 17, 1914. The Siege of Naco.

Pancho Villa ordered his forces to attack a garrison  loyal to  Venustiano Carranza and Álvaro Obregón at Naco, Sonora, Mexico, commencing what would become a 119 day siege. 

The town is on the border with Arizona.

The British took Violaines and French cavalry Fromelles .  French forces recaptured Armentières.

The German Navy lost a torpedo squadron trying to lay mines at them mouth of the Thames.  A German torpedo boat sank the Japanese cruiser Takachiho.

Last edition:

Friday, October 16, 1914. Kiwis depart.

Labels: 1910s, 1914, Battle of the Yser, Belgian Army, British Army, French Army, New Zealand Army, World War One

Saturday, October 10, 1914. Convention of Aguascalientes

The Convention of Aguascalientes, called by Venustiano Carranza convened.  Carranza, in spite of calling the meeting, did not attend and did not send representatives.  Pancho Villa's representatives were in attendance.  Álvaro Obregón came in person. Zapata's representatives would arrive fifteen days after the start of the convention.  Villista's dominated.

The first thing the convention did was to declare itself sovereign, the de facto government of Mexico.

British and French forces attempted to take the French city of La Bassée.

King Carol I of Romania, who opposed entering the Great War, died.

The SMS Emden left British held Diego Garcia, with its residents unaware that a war had started.

Boston took game two of the World Series, 1 to 0.

Last edition:

Friday, October 9, 1914. Antwerp surrendered.

Labels: 1910s, 1914, 1914 World Series, Antwerp Belgium, baseball, Battle of the Vistula

Thursday, August 20, 1914. Carranza enters Mexico City. The Germans enter Brussels.

Venustiano Carranza and his supporters entered Mexico City to set up a new Mexican left wing Constitutionalist government, backed by Álvaro Obregón.  Residents of the city turned out in mass to see the procession head to the Presidential Palace.

The Germans entered Brussels.

The Siege of Namur began.  So did the Battles of Sarrebourg, Morhange and Gubinnen.

The Germans ordered the evacuation of East Prussia.

St. Pope Pius X died. His last words were "Together in one: all things in Christ," referencing his motto.

Born in an Italian speaking region of the Austro Hungarian Empire which is now part of Italy he was a strong opponent of  modernist interpretation of theology, he initiated the preparation of the 1917 Code of Canon Law.  He was responsible for the lowering of the age for First Communion and promoted a Thomist approach to philosophical inquiry in Catholic institutions.

Last edition:

Wednesday, August 19, 1914. Sitting it out.

Labels: 1910s, 1914, United States, Woodrow Wilson, World War One

Tuesday, August 13, 1914. The Teoloyucan Treaties

Álvaro Obregón signed one of the documents related to dissolving the Mexican regime and allowing leaders of the Constitutionalist to create a new government.

The Austro Hungarian troopship SMS Baron Gautsch struck an Austrian mine in the Adriatic and sank, killing 147 men.

8th Annual Cyclist Convention.

Last edition:

Wednesday, August 12, 1914. The United Kingdom and France declare war on Austro Hungaria.

Labels: 1910s, 1914, Austro Hungaria, Battle of Halen, Belgian Army, Belgium, British Commonwealth, cavalry, France, German Kriegsmarine, Imperial Japanese Navy, Japan, Mexican Revolution, Pacific, United Kingdom

Thursday, July 9, 1914. Huerta defeated.

Obregón took Guadalajara.

It was the effective end of Victoriano Huerta's regime.

Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph was advised his council was working on an ultimatum containing demands that were designed to be rejected by Serbia.

As the recent posts have demonstrated, the "war guilt" clauses imposed on the Central Powers after World War One were not without merit.

Miss Norma Phillips.

Last edition:

Wednesday, July 8, 1914. Rebels and Emperors.

Labels: 1910s, 1914, Álvaro Obregón, Austro Hungaria, China, Chinese Warlord Era, July Crisis, Mexican Revolution, Mexico, Serbia, Sun Yat-sen, World War One

Wednesday, July 8, 1914. Rebels and Emperors.

Mexican rebels under Álvaro Obregón defeated a Federal force numbering 6,000 sent out from Guadalajara to arrest his advance.

Exiled Chinese revolutionary figure Sun Yat-sen reorganized the Kuomintang party under the new name Chinese Revolutionary Party after Yuan Shikai, self-proclaimed emperor of China, outlawed the political party.

The Austro Hungarian Council of Ministers gave its recommendations to the Emperor, with the first bieng a surprise attack on Serbia being the preferred option, and the second place one being to  place demands on Serbia before mobilization to provide a proper "juridical basis for a declaration of war".

Last edition:

Tuesday, July 7, 1914. Pondering war.

Labels: 1910s, 1914, Austro Hungaria, Germany, Hungary, July Crisis, Personalities, Serbia, World War One

Saturday, May 16, 1914. Álvaro Obregón's takes Tepic.

Álvaro Obregón's forces captured Tepic and thus the only railroad between the ports of Guadalajara and Colima.

Robert Bartlett arrived in Emma Harbour.

A day late, but the day prior, May 15, Colorado National Guardsman Sergeant Patrick N. Cullom testified that soldiers in his company shot and killed labor activist Louis Tikas and two other fellow strikers while they tried to escape during the Ludlow Massacre.  Moreover, it was revealed that large numbers of strikebreakers were recent enlistees in the subject unit.

Last prior edition:

Thursday, May 14, 1914. The Life of General Villa

1910s, 1914, 1914 at the movies, Equine Transportation, Mexican Revolution, Mexico, Movies, Nebraska (Omaha), Omaha Nebraska, Pancho Villa, panoramic