Saturday, November 10, 1945. Heart Mountain Closed.

Today In Wyoming's History: November 10: 1945  Heart Mountain internment center closed.

Indonesian troops staged a  major counterattack at Surabaya.  This is Indonesian Heroes Day in commemoration of the event.

The death penalty was carried out on five Germans convicted for the murder of six American airmen in the Rüsselsheim massacre.

Last edition:

Thursday, November 8, 1945. British ultimatum in Indonesia.

Labels: 1940s, 1945, August von Mackensen, British Army, Clement Attlee, German Army, Germany, Harry S. Truman, Hungary, Indonesia, Indonesian National Revolution, Sukarno, War Crimes

Thursday, November 11, 1943. Armistace Day.

It was Armistice Day for 1943.

Japanese American Girl Scouts walking in front of barracks and carrying American flags while incarcerated at Heart Mountain concentration camp, Wyoming, 11/11/43.

The Moscow Conference came to an end.

French security forces raided the homes of President El Khoury, Prime Minister Riad Al Solh, and all but two members of the Cabinet, including future President Camille Chamoun, in reaction to the unilateral Lebanese repeal of the League of Nations' mandate over the country.

High Commissioner Helleu suspended the Lebanese constitution and appointed Émile Eddé as the new President.

The dissolution and unraveling of the French Empire had commenced.

In France, Armée Secrète Resistance fighters led by Colonel Henri Romans-Petit placed flowers at the foot of the memorial for the dead of the Great War in an act of bold defiance of the Germans.

The Red Army took Radomyshi.

Allied bombing of Rabaul ended following a final raid, with nearly every Japanese ship there disabled or destroyed.

Sarah Sundin notes something about that raid:

Today in World War II History—November 11, 1943: In Rabaul raid, US Navy Curtiss SB2C Helldiver makes its combat debut. US Eighth Air Force activates “Carpetbagger” squadrons to deliver supplies to resistance.

The film Sahara, with heroic Allies stranded in the desert, and even a sympathetic Italian character, holding off the Germans, was released.

Three Allied transport ships and a tanker are sunk east of Oran in a major Luftwaffe raid.

1943  The Commander of the Prisoner of War Camp in Douglas announced that 1,000 Italians held at the camp would be helping with the fall harvest. Given the timing of the announcement, it would have to be presumed that the harvest was well underway at the time.  As Douglas itself is not in a farming belt, it would be interesting to know where the POWs actually went, and how they were housed.  Attribution:  Wyoming State Historical Society.

Friday, February 5, 1943. Depriving the vote. Introduction of the M1943 Combat Boot.

Today In Wyoming's History: February 5: 1943 1943  The Legislature passes a bill denying American citizens interned at Heart Mountain Relocation Camp the right to vote.

Not exactly a proud, or even legal, moment for the state.

Sarah Sundin notes something grim on her blog:

Today in World War II History—February 5, 1943: 80 Years Ago—Feb. 5, 1943: Nazis begin liquidating Bialystok ghetto; 1,000 Jews are killed and 10,000 are sent to Treblinka extermination camp.

Events such as these accelerated and climbed in scale following the German defeat at Stalingrad.  The focus of the war began to turn less on Eastern European colonization and more on murder.

Mel Brooks, oddly enough, made Bialystok a name that's at least recognizable to fans of his comedy, as one of the two principal characters in The Producers bears that as his last name.  I don't know if that was intentional or not, but it's interesting.

The Polish city remains a significant one in Poland today.  Prior to World War Two, Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe.  Germany's was actually relatively small.  3.3 million Jews lived in Poland, not all of whom claimed a Jewish identity, although many did.  By the war's end, approximately 380,000 Polish Jews remained.  Many would subsequently emigrate out of the country.  Polish Jews would undergo a renewed wave of repression following World War Two, following the same in the Soviet Union, during which Jewish Poles were accused of being in league with the United States and Israel against Communism, and the state officially worked to eliminate the unique distinction of Jews as particular victims of German atrocities.

Mussolini fired his Foreign Minister, his son-in-law Count Galeazzo Ciano, along with most of his cabinet.  Il Duce took over the position of Foreign Minister, along with being Interior Minister, War Minister, and Air Minister.

Lt. Gen. Frank M. Andrews.

Lt. Gen. Frank M. Andrews was appointed commander of U.S. Forces in Europe, relieving Gen. Dwight Eisenhower of that post in a little noted change of command.  Eisenhower was, at that time, engaged in the combat command in North Africa.

Andrews was the grandson of a Confederate cavalryman and was a cavalryman himself, having been commissioned in that branch in 1906.  His career benefited from him having married well.  He switched to Army aviation during World War One, although he returned briefly to the cavalry after the war.

Lt. Col Georges Doriot, a later pioneer in venture capitalism, an immigrant from France, and a wartime volunteer, convinced Gen. George Marshall to adopt what would become the M1943 combat boot, which would replace the Army Service Shoe and leggings, for the most part, by the end of the war.  The M1943 would also officially replace the Army paratrooper boot as well.  In reality, the Service Shoe and the jump boot were never fully replaced by the M1943, and paratroopers resisted adopting the M1943.

How the U.S. Army imagined its troops to look in an official painting illustrating the Army in Europe, late war.  The tankers in this painting are probably wearing the overalls that were issued to tankers, but for coats they are wearing the Winter Combat Jacket.  It wasn't a tanker only item, but it became heavily associated with them.  Originally they were part of the overall winter uniform and were popular with soldiers.  You can find photographic evidence of officers having some altered by tailors to include epaulets for rank insignia, which they otherwise lacked.  The Thompson submachine gun is correct for an armored crewman.  The walking Colonel is an officer of the 5th Infantry Division and is shown wearing the M1943 Field Jacket, and he is wearing the M1943 Combat Boots.  These solders are wearing the M1943 cotton trousers, which were issued, but often solders in the winter continued to wear their wool service pattern trousers, and indeed did so even in warmer months.   Both walking soldiers are shown wearing helmet covers, which were rarely worn in Europe as it caused confusion with German snipers, who also did.  Helmet netting was much more common.

The reason for the adoption was that Service Shoes were not lasting long, with a reported thirteen days of durability, although that is likely explained by materials rather than the design itself, which had an extremely long run and which survives as a very tough civilian pattern to this day.  The M1943 was in fact based on the Service Shoe, but incorporating cuff buckles which had been used on prior civilian hunting and outdoors boots.  It was also made of rough out leather, as "Pershing Boots" had been during World War One, which was known to be highly durable, but which was resistant to polishing.

One solder comforting another during the Korean War.  All of these men wear the M1943 Combat Boot. They're also wearing Field Pants, modeled on the trousers worn by U.S. paratroopers in World War Two and which have continued to be the pattern to the present day.

The M1943 was seen as a huge improvement by soldiers when they came out, save for paratroopers, but it was replaced in 1948, theoretically, by a boot based on the theoretically replaced jump boot.  In reality, however, M1943s would be in use well into the late 1950s.  They also saw use in other armies, which adopted the pattern, and which used them for many years.

U.S. troosp in Italy during World War Two.  The sniper in the center of the photo is wearing a helmet cover, rare for U.S. troops during the war, and he's wearing M1942 Jump Boots, which were hugely popular with U.S. servicemen during the war, and for decades thereafter.  Made on the Munson Last, they were very comfortable boots.  His rifle is a M1903A5.  To the right, as we view the photo, an infantryman is equipped also with the bolt action M1903, as are two of the men behind him.  The number of M1903s in this photo is not uncommon, but there are too many to be explained by their being scout snipers or grenadiers, both of which used the M1903 throughout the war.

The M1943 boots came in as part of the M1943 Combat Uniform, which featured not only new boots, but a new field jacket, the M1943, which formed the distinctive appearance of the American soldier for decades thereafter.  The Field Jacket was a huge improvement over prior patterns, and it did successfully replace the various competing variants, although examples of the earlier patterns did endure throughout the war.  Through various updates and modifications, the basic M1943 style of uniform remained in general service up until the adoption of the Battle Dress Uniform in the early 1980s, which was itself ironically patterned on the earlier M1941 Paratroopers Uniform which had inspired Vietnam era jungle fatigues.  The successor of the M1943 Field Jacket would remain in use until the very recently, and is still an acceptable private purchase item.

U.S. Army officers during the Korean War wearing the pattern of uniform closely based on the M1943 uniform.  The officer on the right wears the M1951 Field Jacket, which was of a greener color than the M1943.  Both men are wearing russet M1948 Combat Boots, a pattern that had been introduced after the war and which was based on the M1942 Paratrooper Boot, but which was in fact slightly different, even though by this time the M1942 had been reintroduced.  The boots should be black, but many were russet as that had been the color they were first adopted in and soldiers were expected to die them black, something that wasn't easy to do.  Both men are wearing "patrol caps", which also came in with the M1943 uniform as the M1943 Field Cap.  The Army has retained the Patrol Cap to this day, after briefly toying with replacing it.

It might be noted that the M1943 uniform was only an Army uniform during World War Two.  The Marine Corps adopted the field jacket after the war, but only the field jacket.

Thursday, February 19, 1942. Commencement of Japanese Internment.

Today is remembered as a black mark on American history, and is now officially commemorated as the Japanese Internment Day of Remembrance.  It was the day in which President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, resulting in internment.

Today In Wyoming's History: February 19: 1942 Franklin D. Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066, authorizing the removal of any or all people from military areas "as deemed necessary or desirable."  This would lead to internment camps, including Heart Mountain near Cody.

 Map showing interment camps and other aspects of the exclusion of ethnic Japanese from the Pacific Coast during World War Two.

The text of the order read:

Executive Order No. 9066

The President

Executive Order

Authorizing the Secretary of War to Prescribe Military Areas

Whereas the successful prosecution of the war requires every possible protection against espionage and against sabotage to national-defense material, national-defense premises, and national-defense utilities as defined in Section 4, Act of April 20, 1918, 40 Stat. 533, as amended by the Act of November 30, 1940, 54 Stat. 1220, and the Act of August 21, 1941, 55 Stat. 655 (U.S.C., Title 50, Sec. 104);

Now, therefore, by virtue of the authority vested in me as President of the United States, and Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, I hereby authorize and direct the Secretary of War, and the Military Commanders whom he may from time to time designate, whenever he or any designated Commander deems such action necessary or desirable, to prescribe military areas in such places and of such extent as he or the appropriate Military Commander may determine, from which any or all persons may be excluded, and with respect to which, the right of any person to enter, remain in, or leave shall be subject to whatever restrictions the Secretary of War or the appropriate Military Commander may impose in his discretion. The Secretary of War is hereby authorized to provide for residents of any such area who are excluded therefrom, such transportation, food, shelter, and other accommodations as may be necessary, in the judgment of the Secretary of War or the said Military Commander, and until other arrangements are made, to accomplish the purpose of this order. The designation of military areas in any region or locality shall supersede designations of prohibited and restricted areas by the Attorney General under the Proclamations of December 7 and 8, 1941, and shall supersede the responsibility and authority of the Attorney General under the said Proclamations in respect of such prohibited and restricted areas.

I hereby further authorize and direct the Secretary of War and the said Military Commanders to take such other steps as he or the appropriate Military Commander may deem advisable to enforce compliance with the restrictions applicable to each Military area here in above authorized to be designated, including the use of Federal troops and other Federal Agencies, with authority to accept assistance of state and local agencies.

I hereby further authorize and direct all Executive Departments, independent establishments and other Federal Agencies, to assist the Secretary of War or the said Military Commanders in carrying out this Executive Order, including the furnishing of medical aid, hospitalization, food, clothing, transportation, use of land, shelter, and other supplies, equipment, utilities, facilities, and services.

This order shall not be construed as modifying or limiting in any way the authority heretofore granted under Executive Order No. 8972, dated December 12, 1941, nor shall it be construed as limiting or modifying the duty and responsibility of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, with respect to the investigation of alleged acts of sabotage or the duty and responsibility of the Attorney General and the Department of Justice under the Proclamations of December 7 and 8, 1941, prescribing regulations for the conduct and control of alien enemies, except as such duty and responsibility is superseded by the designation of military areas hereunder.

Franklin D. Roosevelt

The White House,

February 19, 1942.

While the choice of Heart Mountain in Park County was not one that Wyoming asked for, the event would prove to be a bit of a black mark on Wyoming's history as well.  Governor Lester Hunt, who did not come into office until 1943, would be vociferous in his statements regarding the internees and the legislature would take at least one act in regard to them, that being voting to deny them the right to vote in the state's elections.

On the same day, Darwin, Australia was bombed by the Japanese, inflicting heavy losses on facilities at the town. Twelve ships were sunk in the harbor, making the raid somewhat comparable to Pearl Harbor.

Like the attack at Pearl Harbor, the raid came in two stages and was a surprise attack, albeit on a nation already at war.  The Japanese aircraft were air and land based.  More bombs were used in the attack than had been used in the Pearl Harbor raid.  Australian defenses were relatively light and incapable of dealing with the attack. The resulting chaos resulted in a breakdown of civil authority, with looting taking place even by Australian troops in the town.  Many people would leave the city never to return, or only to return many years later.

The raid was the largest to occur against mainland Australia during the war and was an unqualified success.  The goal was to remove Darwin as a base for the Australians to counteract Japanese forces in Indonesia.

The Vichy government commenced a lengthy trial in Riom with the aims of showing that the preceding Third Republic had been responsible for France's defeat at the hand of the Germans in 1940.

In Winnipeg, Manitoba, the city staged If Day, a simulated German invasion.  The event was a huge success which boosted local bonds sales, which was the goal, enormously.

Blog Mirror: 'The Eagles of Heart Mountain' explores Japanese incarceration through a high school football team

 

'The Eagles of Heart Mountain' explores Japanese incarceration through a high school football team

Today In Wyoming's History: November 10, 1945. The Closure of the Heart Mountain Internment Camp.

Today In Wyoming's History: November 10: 1945  Heart Mountain interment center closed.

See also:  

Today in World War II History—November 10, 1940 & 1945

Governor Hunt's World War Two Correspondence, Heart Mount Internment Camp

The American Heritage Center at the University of Wyoming has digitized Wyoming Governor Hunts papers, including correspondence he received or sent concerning the Internment Camp at Hear Mountain.

Included in these, is a surprising example of somebody writing to the Governor to inquire about receiving a "Japanese girl" for work at her ranch home.  She was willing to pay wages, but still, its not something I'd expect to have found anyone inquiring about.  A surprising thing to read.

Post World War Two Homesteading

I was reading the recent issue of Annals of Wyoming, the journal of the state historical society, and there was an article that somebody had written on cultural geography and Heart Mountain, Wyoming.  Heart Mountain is the location outside of Cody Wyoming, where, during World War Two, there was an Internment Camp for Japanese Americans.

The article was on the relationship of Heart Mountain to the minds of various groups of people, and I wasn't wholly impressed.  Like some academics, the author was overly impressed with the fact that locals put images of Heart Mountain on signs or name things after it. Well, so what?  If you have a business you have to name it something, and a prominent local landscape feature is one of the more obvious choices.  After all, you are unlikely to name a veterinary clinic in Cody something like "The Giant Florida Swamp Vet Clinic."  I did find it interesting that the mountain was somewhat less mentioned by internees than you'd suspect, and that regional Indians didn't seem to mention it at all in their lore.

Anyhow, one of the things the author keeps bringing up again and again is that it featured in the photographs taken by post World War Two homesteaders.  The article suffers from the author's apparent view that everyone knows that there were post wWII homesteaders in the area, even though the Homestead Acts were repealed in in the early 1930s. 

Does anyone know the story of post WWII homesteading?  I know that some lands were opened back up for returning veterans, sort of an agricultural GI Bill, but that's all I know.